Uranium · Plutonium Transplutonic Elements

Uranium.- Preface.- 1 A History of Uranium Poisoning (1824-1942).- I. Early History. Homeopathic Uses.- II. Toxicity of Uranium Compounds.- III. Experimental Nephritis; Kidney.- A. Pathology.- 1. Glomerular Injury vs. Tubular Injury.- 2. Glomerular Lesions.- 3. Tubular Lesions.- 4. Repair of Tubular Injury.- 5. Tolerance.- B. Age.- C. Anuria.- D. Casts.- E. Edema.- F. Diuretics.- G. Kidney Composition.- IV. Experimental Nephritis; Urine.- A. Glycosury and Albuminuria.- B. Urinary Nitrogen.- C. Kidney Function.- D. Urinary Enzymes.- E. Urinary Acetone, Acetoacetic Acid, Phenols, Organic Acids.- F. Urinary Sodium, Chloride, Potassium, Phosphate.- G. Acidosis.- V. Effects of Uranium on the Cardiovascular System.- A. Capillary Permeability.- B. Vessel Tone.- C. Blood Pressure.- D. Cardiac Hypertrophy.- E. Arterial Lesions.- F. Heart Rate.- G. Hemoglobin.- H. Viscosity.- I. Coagulation.- J. Hemolysis.- K. Toxic Serum Factor.- VI. Effects of Uranium on the Blood Chemistry.- A. Nitrogen.- 1. Non-protein Nitrogen.- 2. Rest-N.- 3. Urea-N.- 4. Azotemia.- 5. Uric Acid.- 6. Creatinine.- 7. Ammonia.- 8. Serine.- 9. Xanthoproteic Reaction.- 10. Indican.- 11. Diazo-reacting Substances.- 12. Index of Pathological Change.- B. Acidosis.- C. Other Blood Constituents.- 1. Chloride.- 2. Sodium.- 3. Potassium.- 4. Magnesium.- 5. Calcium.- 6. Sulfate.- 7. Phosphate.- 8. Cholesterol.- 9. Lipids.- 10. Phenols.- 11. Sugar.- 12. Freezing Point.- 13. Refractive Index.- VII. Effects of Uranium on the Liver.- A. Pathology.- B. Biochemistry.- C. Biliary Excretion.- D. Fecal Analysis.- VIII. Effects of Uranium on Muscle.- IX. Effects of Uranium on the Nervous System.- X. Effects of Uranium on Enzymes.- XI. Selected Metabolic Effects of Uranium.- XII. Treatment of Uranium Poisoning.- XIII. Tissue Contents of Uranium in Uranium Poisoning.- References.- 2 Physical and Chemical Properties of Uranium.- I. Physical Properties of Atomic Uranium.- A. Extra-nuclear Properties.- B. Nuclear Properties.- 1. Isotopes.- 2. Nuclear Fission.- a) The Probability of Fission.- b) The Energy Released in Fission.- c) Fission Product Mass Distribution.- d) Charge Distribution.- e) Fission Neutrons.- II. The Chemistry of Uranium.- A. Metallic Uranium.- B. Compounds of Uranium and Non-Metallic Elements.- 1. Uranium Hydride.- 2. Group IIIA - Uranium Borides.- 3. Group IVA - Uranium Carbides and Silicides.- a) Uranium Carbides.- b) Uranium Silicides.- 4. Group VA - Uranium Nitrides, Phosphides, and Arsenides.- a) Uranium Nitrides.- b) Uranium Phosphides.- c) Uranium Arsenides.- 5. Group VIA - Uranium Oxides, Sulfides, Selenides, and Tellurides.- a) Uranium Oxides.- b) Uranium Sulfides.- c) Uranium Selenides.- d) Uranium Tellurides.- 6. Group VIIA - Uranium Fluorides, Chlorides, Bromides, and Iodides.- a) Uranium Fluorides.- b) Uranium Chlorides.- c) Uranium Bromides.- d) Uranium Iodides.- e) Uranium Mixed Halides and Uranium (IV) Borohydride.- f) Uranium Oxyhalides.- g) Uranium Nitrogen Halides.- C. Uranium Salts, Hydrated Oxides, Uranates, and Peruranates.- 1. Uranium (IV) Salts.- a) Carbonates.- b) Sulfates.- c) Oxalates.- 2. Uranium (VI) Salts.- a) Carbonates.- b) Nitrates.- c) Phosphates.- d) Sulfates.- e) Uranyl Halides.- f) Acetates.- g) Oxalates.- 3. Uranium Oxide Hydrates.- 4. Uranates and Peruranates.- D. Uranium in Solution.- 1. Aqueous Solution.- a) Oxidation States.- b) Hydrolysis.- c) Complex Ion Formation.- 2. Physiological Systems.- a) Complexing Agents.- b) Prevention and Therapy of Uranium Poisoning.- E. References to the Analytical Chemistry of Uranium.- References.- 3 Animal Experiments.- I. Introduction.- II. Criteria of Uranium Toxicity in Experimental Animals.- III. Parenteral Administration.- IV. Oral Toxicity of Uranium.- A. Thirty Day Feeding Experiments.- B. One- and Two-year Feeding Experiments.- V. Uranium Compounds Applied to the Skin.- VI. Uranium Compounds Applied to the Eye.- VII. Respiratory Tract Exposure to Uranium Dusts.- A. Studies by Means of Tracheal Insufflation.- B. Toxicity Following Inhalation.- 1. 30-day Studies.- 2. Studies of Toxicity Following Inhalation of Uranium Compounds for One Year.- a) Uranyl Nitrate Hexahydrate.- b) Uranium Hexafluoride.- c) Uranium Tetrachloride.- d) Uranium Dioxide.- e) Uranium Tetrafluoride.- 3. Studies of Toxicity Following Inhalation of Uranium Compounds for Two Years.- 4. Inhalation of UO2 for Five Years.- 5. Recent Inhalation Studies of Uranium Trioxide.- VIII. Distribution and Excretion of Uranium.- IX. Mechanisms of Uranium Action.- A. Entry of Uranium into the Body.- B. Transport of Uranium in Plasma.- C. Excretion of Uranium.- X. Toxic Action of Uranium on Kidney Structure and Function.- A. Morphologic Studies.- B. Functional Studies.- 1. Renal Clearance Studies.- 2. Proteinuria.- 3. Enzyme Studies.- C. Tolerance to Acute Uranium Poisoning.- XI. Attempted Prevention and Therapy of Uranium Poisoning.- References.- 4 Data on Man.- I. Introduction.- II. Planned Administrations of Uranium.- A. Intravenous Injection.- 1. The Rochester Intravenous Injection Experiment.- 2. The Boston Intravenous Injection Experiment.- 3. Experiments Using Uranium Injections to Evaluate Skeletal Metabolic Disorders.- 4. Interpretation of the Intravenous Experiments.- B. Oral Administration of Uranium.- 1. Use as a Therapeutic Agent.- 2. Experimental Ingestion by a Volunteer Subject.- 3. Hospital Study on Oral Absorption of Uranyl Nitrate.- 4. Interpretation of the Oral Experiments.- C. Inhalation of Uranium.- 1. Experimental Clearance of Uranium Dust from the Human Body.- 2. Interpretation of the Inhalation Experiment.- III. Occupational Exposure to Uranium.- A. Introductory Remarks.- B. General Industrial Exposure.- 1. "Soluble" and "Insoluble".- 2. Biological Monitoring.- 3. Postmortem Data.- C. Uranium Hexafluoride.- 1. Normal Exposure.- 2. Acute Overexposure.- D. Less-Soluble Uranium Compounds.- 1. Occupational Exposures.- IV. Natural Background Levels of Natural Uranium.- A. Uranium in Soil and Plants.- B. Uranium in Water and Foodstuffs.- C. Uranium in Man.- D. Use of Background Uranium Data to Estimate Metabolic Parameters.- 1. Absorption.- 2. Rate Constant for Whole Body Loss.- References.- 5 Protection Criteria.- I. The History of Development of Protection Criteria for Uranium in Air.- A. Acceptable Limits to Human Exposure.- B. The Meaning of "Maximum Permissible".- C. Towards an Occupational Air Standard for Natural Uranium.- 1. The Earliest Assessment at Oak Ridge (1947).- 2. The Emergency Guide at Rochester, N.Y. (1949).- 3. Early Rochester Results (1949).- 4. Recommendation of the Rochester Committee (1949).- 5. Recommendation of the Chalk River Conference (1949).- 6. The Tangled Reports of 1949.- 7. Recommendation of the Harriman Conference (1953).- D. Recommendation of the ICRP Committee II (1954, 1958).- E. Recommendation of the ACGIH (1957, 1968).- F. Other Deliberating and Authorizing Bodies.- II. Protection Criteria for Uranium in Drinking Water.- A. History of Recommended (MPC)ws.- B. The Limitation on Short-Term Intake.- III. The Calculation of the (MPC)a for Uranium According to Current ICRP-NCRP Practice.- A. Guiding Principles and Dose Units for Radioactive Nuclides.- B. Methods of Setting Limits where Chemical Toxicity is the Critical Endpoint.- 1. Alternative Approaches.- 2. Derivation of the (MPC)a for Soluble Natural Uranium.- 3. The Derivation of the (MPC)w for Natural Uranium.- Comment: Basis for Selection of 3 ?g per Gram Kidney as Permissible.- C. Method of Setting Limits when Radiation Injury is the Critical Endpoint.- 1. Derivation of (MPC)a for Insoluble Natural Uranium.- 2. Comment.- a) The Critical Organ.- b) Further Consideration of the Differences in the Experimental Animal Results and Experience with Occupationally Exposed Human Subjects.- c) The Lymph Nodes as a Critical Organ.- IV. Modification of the Occupational MPCs for Application to the General Public.- A. Lower Limits Recommended.- B. Basic Radiation Dose Limits and Related MPCs for the General Public.- 1. Individual.- 2. Population as a Whole.- 3. The Derived MPCs.- C. At what Numerical Size Does a Group Become a Population?.- D. Limits for Uranium in Environmental Air and Water.- 1. Soluble Natural Uranium Compounds.- 2. Insoluble Natural Uranium Compounds.- E. Comparison of Population MPCs and Present Environmental Levels.- 1. Uranium in the Environment.- 2. Uranium Production Waste Products.- V. Derived Occupational Limits for Personnel Monitoring.- A. Urinary Excretion Limits.- 1. General Remarks.- 2. Urinary Levels as an Environmental Control Index.- 3. Urinary Analysis as a Means of Detecting Unreported Accidents.- 4. The Use of Routine Urinary Uranium Data to Assess Individual Exposure..- B. Urinary Uranium Limits.- 1. Urinary Limit for Exposure to Soluble Forms of Uranium.- 2. Urinary Limit for Exposure to Insoluble Uranium Compounds.- C. The Urinary Limits Compared to Empirical Plant Findings.- VI. Practical Considerations Applicable to Industrial Conditions.- A. Selction of an Air Limit where Solubility of the Uranium Aerosol Cannot Be Stipulated.- B. Selection of an Air Limit when Uranium Aerosol is Known to Be Soluble.- C. Air Limits for Varying Degrees of Enrichment.- References.- 6 Environmental Monitoring and Personnel Protection in Uranium Processing.- I. Introduction.- II. Classification of Uranium.- III. Process Equipment Design.- A. Material Less than 5-8 Percent 235U.- B. Material Greater than 5-8 Percent 235U.- C. Special Materials.- IV. Environmental Monitoring.- A. General Air Sampling.- B. Diagnostic and Breathing-Zone Sampling.- C. Monitoring of Plant Releases.- 1. Stack Monitoring.- 2. Plant Effluent Monitoring.- D. Surface Contamination Sampling.- 1. Process Area Smears.- 2. Lunchroom and General Plant Area.- E. Personal Air Samplers.- F. Particle-Size Distribution in Processing Areas.- V. Personnel Monitoring.- A. Urine Analysis.- 1. Sample Type and Collection.- 2. Sampling Frequency.- B. Relationship of Uranium Air Concentrations and Urinary Uranium Excretion.- C. In vivo Monitoring.- D. Correlation of Uranium Urine Excretion Rate and in vivo Measurement Results.- E. Fecal Sampling.- F. Personnel Practices.- 1. Respirators.- 2. Protective Clothing.- 3. Personal Hygiene.- VI. Laboratory Analysis.- A. Air and Smear Samples.- B. Analysis of Soil and Plant Water Discharge.- C. Analysis of Urine Samples.- References.- 7 Uranium Mining Hazards.- I. Introduction.- A. Distribution of Uranium Ore Deposits.- B. Types of Mining Operations.- C. Constituents of Uranium Ores.- II. Health Hazards in Uranium Mining.- A. External Radiation.- B. Internal Radiation from Long-Lived Radioactive Elements.- C. Radon and Radon Daughters.- D. Other Health Hazards.- III. Experimental Exposures to Radon and Radon Daughters.- IV. Human Exposures to Radon and Radon Daughters.- V. Evaluation of Mine Atmospheres.- A. Measurement of Radon Concentration.- B. Measurements of Radon Daughters.- C. Measurements of Latent Alpha Energy Content.- D. Measurements of Condensation Nuclei.- E. Estimation of "Unattached Atoms".- VI. Maximum Permissible Concentrations of Radon Daughters.- VII. Control of Radon Daughter Concentrations in Mines.- A. Mine Planning.- B. Reducing Radon Influx.- C. Removal of Radon and Radon Daughters by Ventilation.- D. Removal of Radon Daughters by Air-Cleaning.- References.- Plutonium.- Preface.- 8 Biomedical Aspects of Plutonium (Discovery, Development, Projections).- I. Foreword.- II. General Toxicology of Plutonium.- III Development of Biomedical Information on Plutonium.- A. Early Beginnings.- B. The "Plutonium Project" Years.- C. The Utah Project.- D. Inhalation Studies.- E. Information from Experience with Man.- F. Therapeutic Removal.- G. Work Abroad.- IV. Newer Uses of Plutonium.- V. Summary.- References.- 9 Chemical and Physical Properties of Plutonium.- I. Introduction.- A. The Position of Plutonium in the Periodic Table.- B. Electronic Structure.- C. Isotopes of Plutonium.- II. Plutonium and its Compounds.- A. Plutonium Metal.- B. Oxidation States.- C. Plutonium Compounds.- 1. Oxides.- 2. Halogen Compounds.- 3. Nitrates.- 4. Sulphates.- 5. Phosphates.- 6. Oxalates.- 7. Hydride, Carbides, Nitride, Silicides and Sulphides.- 8. Other Compounds.- III. Solution Chemistry of Plutonium.- A. Absorption Spectra of Plutonium.- B. Hydrolytic Reactions.- 1. Hydrolysis of Pu (IV).- 2. Hydrolysis of Pu (VI).- 3. Hydrolysis of Pu (III).- 4. Hydrolysis of Pu (V).- C. Plutonium Complexes.- 1. Complexes with Inorganic Anions.- 2. Acetate Complexes.- 3. Lactate Complexes.- 4. Citrate Complexes.- 5. Polyaminopolycarboxylic Acids.- 6. Complexes with 1:3 Diketones.- 7. Organophosphorus Complexes.- 8. Other Complexing Agents.- D. Oxidation States in Solution.- IV. Interaction of Plutonium with Proteins and Other Substances of Biological Interest.- A. Complexing with Plasma Proteins.- B. Binding to Ferritin.- C. Binding to Bone Proteins.- D. Binding to Other Proteins.- E. Binding to Other Substances.- References.- 10 Distribution, Excretion and Effects of Plutonium as a Bone-Seeker.- I. Introduction.- II. Metabolism of 239Pu with Special Reference to the Skeleton.- A. Species Differences.- B. Age Differences.- C. Routes of Entry with Special Reference to Skeletal Uptake.- 1. Intravenous.- 2. Gastrointestinal.- 3. Unbroken Skin.- 4. Intradermal.- 5. Subcutaneous.- 6. Intramuscular or Wound.- 7. Inhalation.- 8. Conclusions.- D. Plasma Transport.- E. Plasma Clearance.- F. Excretion.- G. Retention.- H. Problems of Estimating Skeletal Burden.- III. Other Plutonium Isotopes.- A. 238Pu.- 1. Intragastric.- 2. Intravenous and Intramuscular Injection.- 3. Inhalation.- B. Relative Toxicities of 238Pu and 239Pu.- C. Metabolic Patterns of 237Pu and 239Pu.- D. Conclusions.- IV. The Pattern of 239Pu Distribution in the Skeleton.- A. Bone Surfaces.- B. Bone Marrow.- 1. Distribution in Bone Marrow Following Intravenous Injection.- 2. Distribution in Bone Marrow Following Intramuscular Injection.- V. The Binding of Plutonium in Bone.- VI. Theory and Technique of Alpha Dosimetry with Particular Reference to the Skeleton.- A. Experimental Techniques.- 1. Macroscopic and Microscopic Measurements.- 2. Autoradiography.- 3. Microdensitometry.- 4. Solid State Track Detectors.- B. Plutonium Isotopes and Properties of Alpha Particle Irradiation.- 1. Plutonium Isotopes and the Decay of 239Pu.- 2. The Linear Energy Transfer, LET, and Stopping Power.- 3. The Nature of Alpha Particle Ionization.- 4. The Tissue Equivalent Sphere of Rossi and the Quantities Y and Z.- 5. The Irradiation of Cells by Alpha Particles.- 6. The Experimental Approach.- C. The Derivation of Formulae for the Calculation of Dose Rates.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Point Source.- 3. The Uniform Volume Distribution.- 4. The Uniform Plane Source Normal to the Film.- 5. The Approximations Involved in Calculating Dose Rates at Bone Surfaces.- 6. The Poisson Distribution.- 7. The Relation Between Dose-rate and "Hit-Frequency".- VII. Radiation Dose Measurements from Deposition of 239Pu in the Skeleton.- A. Introduction.- B. Bone Surfaces.- 1. Intravenous Injections.- a) Rats.- b) Dogs.- c) Rabbits.- d) Comparison of Different Animals.- 2. Intramuscular Injections.- a) Rabbits.- b) Bone Surfaces.- C. Marrow.- 1. Intravenous Injections.- 2. Intramuscular Injections.- D. Conclusion.- VIII. Effects of 239Pu Deposition in the Skeleton.- A. Carcinogenesis.- 1. Osteogenic Sarcoma.- a) Skeletal Site.- b) Microscopic Anatomy.- c) Relation of Bone Radiation Dose to Osteogenic Sarcoma.- 2. Cells at Carcinogenic Risk in Marrow.- a) Mesenchyme Tumours other than Leukaemia.- b) Leukaemia.- 3. Cells at Carcinogenic Risk in Epithelial Tissue.- B. Dysplasia.- 1. Bone.- a) Radiological Changes.- b) Histopathology.- 2. Marrow.- IX. Removal of Internally Deposited Plutonium from the Skeleton.- A. Anion Exchange Resins.- B. Colloidal Scavenging Agents.- C. Chelating Agents.- 1. Local Application to Skin and Wounds.- 2. Skeletal Deposition.- a) EDTA.- b) DTPA.- c) TTHA.- d) BAETA.- e) DFOA.- f) Summary of Sec. IX.- X. Summary.- References.- Note added in Proof.- 11 Plutonium in Soft Tissues with Emphasis on the Respiratory Tract.- I. Introduction.- II. Disposition of Inhaled Plutonium.- A. Clearance of Plutonium from the Lung.- B. Translocation to Other Tissues.- C. Excretion of Plutonium.- III. Interaction of Plutonium Particles with Cells.- IV. Biological Effects of Inhaled Plutonium.- A. Modes of Death.- 1. Acute Toxicity.- 2. Subacute Toxicity.- 3. Carcinogenic Death.- B. Dose-Mortality Relationships.- C. Clinical Changes.- 1. Hematology.- 2. Respiratory Physiology.- D. Pathology and Carcinogenesis.- E. Summary.- V. Therapeutic Removal of Plutonium from the Lung.- References.- 12 Maximum Permissible Body Burdens and Concentrations of Plutonium: Biological Basis and History of Development.- I. Introduction.- II. Radiation Protection Criteria Prior to 1943.- III. Plutonium Occupational Protection Criteria (1943-1946).- IV. Plutonium Occupational Protection Criteria (1946-1950).- V. Plutonium Protection Criteria (1950-1971).- A. The Standard Man.- B. Changes in Values and Concepts.- VI. Current Situation (1971).- References.- Addendum to Chapter XII.- 13 Bioassay of Plutonium.- I. Introduction.- II. Scope and Frequency of Sampling for Routine Monitoring.- III. Collection and Initial Handling of Samples.- IV. Radiochemistry of Plutonium.- V. Procedures for Isolation of Plutonium.- A. Precipitation Methods.- B. Ion Exchange.- 1. Anion Exchange.- 2. Procedure for Removal of Iron.- C. Solvent Extraction.- D. Electrodeposition of Plutonium.- E. Nuclear Track Counting.- VI. Detection of Radioactivity.- A. Alpha Counting.- 1. Total Alpha Counting.- 2. Alpha Spectrometry.- B. Gamma Spectrometry.- C. Low Energy Photon Spectrometry.- VII. Interpretation of Bioassay Data.- References.- 14 Plutonium. Industrial Hygiene, Health Physics, and Related Aspects.- I. Introduction.- II. Protection against Intake of Plutonium.- A. Sealed Enclosures.- B. Control in Other Working Spaces.- 1. Protective Clothing for the Operator.- 2. Continuous Air Monitoring in the Process Rooms.- 3. Change Rooms.- 4. Zoned Air Change.- 5. Maintenance Access.- 6. Personnel Monitoring Stations.- 7. Material Transfers.- 8. Waste Handling.- C. Control of Off-Standard Conditions.- D. Major Accidental Releases.- E. Incidental Releases.- III. Contamination of Personnel.- A. Skin Contamination.- B. Eye, Nose, or Mouth Contamination.- C. Wounds.- D. Lung Contamination.- E. Detection of Airborne Contamination.- 1. Detection of Contamination by Nasal Smears.- 2. Detection of Lung Burdens by External Means.- 3. Detection in Feces.- 4. Detection in Urine.- IV. Treatment of Plutonium Contamination Cases.- V. The U.S. Transuranium Registry.- VI. Protection against Criticality.- A. Safe Geometry.- B. Administrative Controls.- VII. Protection from External Radiations.- A. Nature of the Radiations.- B. Survey Instrumentation.- C. Personnel Monitoring.- D. Protection against Criticality.- VIII. Summary of Plutonium Internal Deposition Experience.- IX. Environmental Protection for Plutonium.- Appendix A. Some Learning Experiences from Autopsy Data and Selected Personnel Contamination Cases.- 1. Autopsy Data.- 2. Selected Deposition Cases.- General Interpretation.- Refinement of Body Burden.- Specific Cases of Interest.- Case 1. Late Detection of Minor Wound.- Case 2. Plutonium Metal Fragment in Wound.- Case 3. Plutonium Oxide Inhalation from Improperly Adjusted Mask.- Case 4. Lung Burden Unrelated to a Specific Accident and below Detection Limit of Routine Bioassay.- Case 5. Repetitive Depositions of Plutonium Compounds.- Case 6. Undetected Wound in Experimental Laboratory.- Case 7. Puncture Wound with DTPA Treatment.- Case 8. Long Term Reliability of Langham Excretion Formula.- References.- 15 Plutonium in the Environment.- I. Introduction.- II. Modes of Release of Plutonium to the Biosphere.- III. Local Contamination with Plutonium.- A. Test Group'57.- B. Operation Roller Coaster.- C. Guide Lines for Local Contamination with Plutonium.- D. Actual Incidents of Local Contamination.- E. Conclusions Regarding Local Contamination Experiments and Incidents.- IV. Ecological and General Environmental Consideration of Plutonium Contamination.- A. Dimensions.- B. Movement into the Biosphere and Man.- 1. Terrestrial Environment.- 2. Aquatic Environment.- 3. Concluding Comments on Sec. IV. B.- C. Movement of Plutonium in the Environment.- V. Summary.- References.- Transplutonic Elements.- Preface.- 16 A History of the Transplutonic Elements.- I. Americium and Curium (Elements 95 and 96).- II. Berkelium and Californium (Elements 97 and 98).- III. Einsteinium and Fermium (Elements 99 and 100).- IV. Mendelevium, Md (Element 101).- V. Nobelium, No (Element 102). The First of the "Controversial" Elements.- VI. Lawrencium, Lr (Element 103).- VII. Element 104 - Rutherfordium (Rf) or Kurchatovium (Ku)?.- VIII. Hahnium (Ha) - Element 105.- IX. Future Heavy Elements.- X. Superheavy Elements.- References.- 17 Chemical and Physical Properties of the Transplutonium Elements.- I. Introduction.- A. The Position of the Transplutonium Elements in the Periodic Table.- B. Electronic Structure.- C. Isotopes of the Transplutonic Elements.- II. Transplutonium Elements and their Compounds.- A. The Metallic States.- 1. Americium.- 2. Curium.- 3. Berkelium.- 4. Higher Elements.- B. Oxidation States.- 1. Americium.- 2. Curium.- 3. Higher Transplutonic Elements.- C. Compounds.- 1. Oxides and Hydroxides.- 2. Hydrides.- 3. Halogen Compounds.- 4. Other Compounds.- III. The Solution Chemistry of the Transplutonic Elements.- A. Absorption Spectra.- B. Hydrolytic Reactions.- C. Complex Formation.- 1. Complexes with Inorganic Anions.- 2. Acetate Complexes.- 3. Lactate Complexes.- 4. Aminopolycarboxylic Acids.- 5. Other Complexes.- D. Oxidation States in Solution.- 1. Americium.- 2. Curium.- IV. Interactions of Transplutonium Elements with Proteins and Other Substances of Biological Importance.- A. Interactions with Plasma Proteins.- B. Binding to Ferritin.- C. Binding to Bone Proteins.- D. Binding to Other Substances.- References.- 18 Metabolism and Biological Effects of the Transplutonium Elements.- I. Introduction.- A. Americium and Curium in Power Reactor Wastes.- B. Production of Berkelium, Californium and Einsteinium.- C. Practical Applications of Transplutonium Isotopes.- II. Chemical and Biological Similarities of the Actinides and Lanthanides.- A. Similarities Due to a Common (III) Valence State.- B. Differences Related to Atomic Size.- C. Biology of the Actinides Related to Both Chemistry and Radiation.- III. Interactions of Multicharged Cations with Life Forms Other than Mammals.- A. Data Sources on Plutonium and Lanthanide Biology.- B. Microorganisms.- C. Algae.- D. Seaweeds and Lichens.- E. Plants.- F. Aquatic Invertebrates.- G. Fish.- H. Insects.- I. Birds.- IV. The Metabolism and Distribution of the Transplutonium Elements in Mammals: Absorption.- A. Absorption from the Gastrointestinal Tract.- B. Absorption from an Intramuscular Injection.- C. Absorption Through the Intact Skin.- D. Absorption of Inhaled Transplutonium Elements.- 1. Deposition of Particles.- 2. "Solubility" of Compounds.- 3. Clearance of Particles from the Lung.- 4. Evaluation of Initial Lung Deposition in Dogs.- 5. Deposition of Inhaled Actinides in the Dog Lung.- 6. Body Absorption of Actinides Deposited in the Dog Lung.- 7. Inhalation and Intratracheal Instillation Studies in Rats.- 8. Absorption of Actinides from the Lungs of Rats after Inhalation or Instillation.- 9. 241Am in the Human Lung.- V. Circulatory Transport.- A. Circulatory Clearance.- B. Protein Binding.- VI. Deposition Kinetics.- A. Kinetic Experiments with 241Am.- B. Recalculation of 241Am Kinetic Data.- C. Clearance and Accumulation Equations.- D. Kinetic Model for Uptake of Multicharged Cations.- 1. Movement in Extracellular Fluid.- 2. Deposition of Am (III) in Bone and Liver.- VII. Distribution and Retention of Transplutonium Elements in the Skeleton.- A. Gross Deposition.- 1. Americium.- 2. Curium.- 3. Berkelium.- 4. Californium.- 5. Einsteinium.- 6. Trends in Skeletal Deposition of the Actinides.- B. Intraskeletal Distribution.- C. Microscopic Distribution.- 1. Initial Distribution of 241Am and 249-252Cf in Rat Long Bones.- 2. Initial Deposition of 241Am in Monkey Bone.- 3. The Effect of Bone Remodeling on Distribution.- D. Retention of 241Am and 242Cm.- 1. Rat.- 2. Chinese Hamster.- 3. Monkey.- 4. Dog.- E. Retention of 249-252Cf and 253Es.- VIII. Deposition and Retention of Transplutonium Elements in Liver.- A. Gross Deposition.- 1. Americium.- 2. Curium.- 3. Berkelium.- 4. Californium.- 5. Einsteinium.- B. Microscopic Distribution.- 1. Initial Distribution of 241Am, 249Bk, and 249-252Cf.- 2. Sequential Changes in Microscopic Distribution.- C. Retention.- 1. Rat and Mouse.- 2. Monkey.- 3. Dog.- 4. Chinese Hamster.- D. Long-Term Content of 241Am in Rat and Monkey Liver.- IX. Deposition and Retention of Transplutonium Elements in Kidney.- A. Initial Deposition.- B. Microscopic Distribution.- 1. Rat.- 2. Monkey.- 3. Dog.- C. Retention.- 1. Rat.- 2. Monkey.- 3. Dog.- 4. Mouse.- 5. Chinese Hamster.- X. Deposition and Retention of Transplutonium Elements in Soft Tissues Other than Liver and Kidney.- A. Spleen.- B. Lymphatic Tissue.- C. Lung.- D. Muscle and Pelt.- E. Heart.- F. Aorta and Other Arteries.- G. Thyroid Gland.- H. Adrenal Gland.- I. Testes and Prostate Gland.- J. Ovary, Uterus, and Mammary Gland.- XI. Excretion of the Transplutonium Elements.- A. Renal Excretion.- 1. Renal Clearance.- 2. Rates of Renal Excretion.- 3. The Quantity of Transplutonium Nuclide Excreted in Urine.- B. Gastrointestinal Excretion.- 1. Biliary Excretion.- 2. Secretion into Digestive Fluids Other than Bile.- 3. Shedding of Intestinal Epithelium.- 4. Functional Attrition of Rodent Incisors.- 5. Species Differences in Fecal Excretion Patterns.- C. Acceleration of the Excretion of Actinide Elements.- 1. Some Pharmacological Characteristics of EDTA and DTPA.- 2. General Description of Animal Studies of DTPA Effectiveness.- 3. Chelation of Actinides in Soft Tissues.- 4. Chelation of Circulating Nuclide.- 5. Chelation of Transplutonium Elements in Marrow or Loosely Associated with Bone.- 6. Chelation of Actinides Deposited in Bone.- 7. Diversion of Nuclide from a Persistent Reservoir.- 8. DTPA Treatment of Persons Exposed to 241Am.- 9. Suitability of 241Am as a Tracer for 239Pu.- XII. Toxicity of the Transplutonium Elements.- A. Lethal Radiation Injury.- 1. Acute Toxicity.- 2. Toxicity Relative to ?-emitting Bone Seekers.- 3. Delayed Lethality.- B. The Formed Elements of the Blood.- 1. Leukocytes.- 2. Erythrocytes.- 3. Thrombocytes.- 4. Bone Marrow.- 5. Hematological Effects of Inhaled 241Am.- C. Effect on Growth and Body Weight.- D. Effects of Inhaled Transplutonium Elements in the Lung.- E. Radiation Injury in the Skeleton.- 1. Alterations of Growth and Structure of Bone.- 2. Induction of Bone Tumors.- F. Cytogenic Effects in Liver and Bone Marrow.- G. Effects on Reproduction and Offspring.- Acknowledgments.- Appendix A.- Appendix B.- Appendix C.- Appendix D.- References.- 19 Maximum Permissible Concentrations and Maximum Permissible Body Burdens for Transplutonic Elements.- I. Introduction.- II. Maximum Permissible Body Burdens (MPBB).- A. Biological Parameters.- B. Effective Energy.- 1. The Relative Biological Effectiveness (RBE) of the Radiation.- 2. The Relative Damage Factor, n, for Radionuclides Deposited in Bone.- 3. Absorbed Fraction.- 4. Fraction of Energy Released from Daughters.- 5. Spontaneous Fission.- III. MPBB and the Critical Organ.- IV. Maximum Permissible Concentrations.- V. Future Developments.- A. Radiation Dose Standards.- B. Dosimetric Models.- C. Metabolic Models.- D. Lung Model.- E. Gut Model.- References.- 20 Bioassay of Transplutonium Elements.- I. Introduction.- II. Chemical Bases for Separation of the Transplutonium Elements.- A. Precipitation.- B. Ion Exchange Chromatography.- 1. Cation Exchangers.- 2. Anion Exchangers.- C. Solvent Extraction.- 1. Tributylphosphate.- 2. Thenoyltrifluoroacetone.- 3. Organophosphoric Compounds.- D. Surface Adsorption.- III. Procedures Used in Bioassay.- A. Gross Alpha Methods.- 1. Precipitation (Schubert et al., 1951).- 2. Surface Adsorption (Eakins and Gomm, 1968).- 3. Anion Exchange (Henley, 1965).- B. Specific Actinide Determination (Low-Beer and Story, 1962).- C. Solvent Extraction with Bidentate Organophosphorus (Butler and Hall, 1970).- IV. Detection of Radioactivity.- A. Alpha Counting.- 1. Total Alpha Counting.- 2. Alpha Spectrometry.- a) Electrodeposition.- b) Monomolecular Layers.- B. Gamma Spectrometry.- 1. Whole Body Counting.- C. Low Energy Photon Spectrometry.- V. Interpretation of Bioassay Data.- Appendix 1.- Appendix 2.- References.- 21 Medical Uses: Americium-241; Californium-252.- I. Medical Uses.- II. Americium-241.- A. Fluorescent Scanning of the Thyroid.- B. Americium-241 Transmission Scanning.- C. Use of Americium-241 for Bone Density Measurements.- III. Californium-252.- A. Use of Californium-252 in Cancer Therapy.- References.- Author Index.