List of Figures xi
List of Maps xv
List of Boxes xix
Preface xxi
Acknowledgments xxiii
List of Abbreviations xxv
Overview of the Historical Period xxvii
Timeline xxix
Prologue: Orientation to Multiple Bibles and Multiple Translations 1
1 Studying the Bible in Its Ancient Context(s) 19
Chapter Overview 19
Why History Is Important in Studying the Bible 20
The Geography and Major Characters of the Biblical Drama 24
Major Periods in the Biblical Drama 28
Multiple Contexts, Multiple Methods 30
Looking Forward to the Big Picture 32
Chapter One Review 33
Resources For Further Study 33
Appendix: Israel’s History and Empires 34
2 The Emergence of Ancient Israel and Its First Oral Traditions 35
Chapter Overview 35
Imagining Early Israel 36
Problems in Reconstructing Early Israel 42
Traces of the Most Ancient Israelite Oral Traditions in the Bible 47
The Oral Background of Genesis 48
Focus Text: The Song of Deborah 54
The Creation of “Israel” Through Cultural Memory of Resistance to Domination 56
Chapter Two Review 57
Resources for Further Study 58
3 The Rise of Writing and Echoes of Past Empires in Monarchal Israel 59
Chapter Overview 59
Imagining Early Monarchal Israel 60
The Rise of the Israelite Monarchy and Resistance to It 62
Influence of Ancient Empires on Early Israel’s Monarchy and Writings 66
Echoes of Near Eastern Royal Theology in the Royal and Zion Psalms 69
Echoes of Texts from Earlier Empires in Writings Attributed to Solomon 75
Focus Text: The Speech of Lady Wisdom in Proverbs 8 81
Echoes of Texts from Past Empires Elsewhere in the Bible 82
Focus Text: The Garden of Eden Story (Gen 2:4–3:24) 87
Conclusion 92
Chapter Three Review 93
Resources for Further Study 93
4 Narrative and Prophecy Amidst the Rise and Fall of the Northern Kingdom 95
Chapter Overview 95
Setting the Stage: The Rise of the Northern Kingdom of Israel and Its Texts 96
Ancient Near Eastern Prophecy 105
Amos, a Southern Prophet Preaching Justice and Doom to the North 106
Hosea, the Northern Prophet, Calling for Israel’s Devotion to Yahweh Alone 108
Micah, a Southern Prophet, Predicting Judgment for Judah and Jerusalem 115
Isaiah’s Vision of Hope for Jerusalem/Zion Embedded in the Book of Isaiah 118
The Use and Reuse of Biblical Traditions 123
Focus Text: Contrasting Prophetic Visions of Zion’s Future 124
Chapter Four Review 125
Resources for Further Study 126
5 Torah and Other Texts Written in the Wake of the Assyrian Empire 127
Chapter Overview 127
Religious and Textual Reform Amidst the Downfall of Assyria 128
The Deuteronomic Torah of Moses and the Phenomenon of Hybridity 135
Historical Texts Infused with the Theology and Values of Deuteronomy 139
Jeremiah’s Prophecy of Judgment on Zion 145
Focus Text: Deuteronomy 6:4–9 149
New Scriptures in the Twilight of Judean Monarchy 152
Chapter Five Review 153
Resources for Further Study 154
6 Bible for Exiles: Promise and Story in the Neo-Babylonian Empire 155
Chapter Overview 155
The Neo-Babylonian Destruction of Jerusalem and Exile 156
Forced Labor for Exiles Under Nebuchadnezzar 160
The Exilic Editions of Biblical Books 163
Ezekiel’s Move from Judgment to Promise with the Fall of Jerusalem 164
Hope for Exiles in Second Isaiah (also called “Deutero-Isaiah”) 167
From Promise in the Prophets to Promise in Two Pentateuchal Sources: L and P 171
History and Fiction 185
Focus Text: Gen 12:1–3 186
Conclusions on (Exilic) Trauma and the Bible 188
Chapter Six Review 189
Resources for Further Study 190
7 Persian Empire and the Emergence of a Temple-Centered Jewish Community 191
Chapter Overview 191
History: The Persian-Sponsored Building of a Temple- and Torah-Centered Judaism 192
The Final Formation of the Torah 201
The Book of Psalms as a Torah-Centered Collection of More Ancient Psalms 206
Focus Text: Isa 56:1–8 209
Concluding Reflections on Scriptures in and After the Exile 211
Chapter Seven Review 212
Resources for Further Study 212
8 Hellenistic Empires and the Formation of the Hebrew Bible 215
Chapter Overview 215
Judaism and Hellenism Before the Hellenizing Crisis 216
The Crisis Over Hellenizing Jerusalem and the Book of Daniel 220
A Hellenistic Period Kingdom of Israel: The Hasmonean Revolt and Monarchy 222
The Hellenistic Period as the Setting for Other Hebrew Bible Texts 224
Focus Text: Daniel 10–12 227
The Formation of the Jewish Tanakh and Christian Old Testament(s) 229
Conclusion 230
Chapter Eight Review 231
Resources for Further Study 231
Prologue to the Study of the New Testament 233
9 The Jesus Movement in the Context of the Roman Empire 237
Chapter Overview 237
Imagining the Jerusalem That Jesus Knew 238
Rome Comes to Jerusalem 240
The Earliest Jesus Traditions 242
Searching for the Historical Jesus: Problems and Proposals 245
Chapter Nine Review 250
Resources for Further Study 250
10 Paul and His Letters in the Roman Colonial Chapter Outline 251
Chapter Overview 251
Paul’s Travels and Letter Collection 252
Who Was Paul? 256
Three Undisputed Letters of Paul: Galatians, 1 Corinthians, and Romans 262
Focus Text: The Problem of Israel and the Place of the Gentiles (Romans 9–11) 271
The Disputed Letters 274
Conclusion: From Letters to Scripture 276
Chapter Ten Review 276
Resources for Further Study 277
11 The Gospel of Mark: Suffering and Trauma under Imperial Rule 279
Chapter Overview 279
The Jewish War (66–70 ce) 280
Pointers to the Dating and Context of the Gospel of Mark 282
Rising Popularity of Jesus and Rising Conflict with the Authorities (Mark 1:1–8:21) 284
Teaching and More Misunderstanding on the Way (Mark 8:22–10:52) 288
The Suffering Messiah (Mark 11:1–16:8) 292
Mark’s Enigmatic Ending 296
Focus Text: Mark 12:1–12 296
Chapter Eleven Review 298
Resources for Further Study 299
12 The Gospel of Matthew: Defining Community in the Wake of Destruction 301
Chapter Overview 301
The Synoptic Problem 302
The Structure of the Gospel of Matthew 305
The Matthean Jesus and Moses 307
The Matthean Jesus, Righteousness, and
Torah Obedience 309
The Matthean Jesus, Wisdom, and Torah 311
Matthew’s Apocalyptic Vision and the
Kingdom of Heaven 312
The Matthean Polemic Against the Pharisees 315
Focus Text: Matt 25:31–46 317
Chapter Twelve Review 320
Resources for Further Study 321
13 Luke–Acts: Legitimizing the Jesus Movement in the Midst of Empire 323
Chapter Overview 323
The Lukan Prologues 324
The Lukan Jesus in Continuity with Israel’s Past 327
The Jesus Movement in Continuity with Israel’s Past 328
Salvation to the Gentiles in Luke–Acts 330
Situating the Jesus Movement in the Roman Empire 332
The Holy Spirit in Luke–Acts 337
Focus Text: Jesus’s Sermon in Nazareth (Luke 4:14–30) 339
Chapter Thirteen Review 341
Resources for Further Study 342
14 The Gospel of John and the Johannine Letters: Turning Inward as a Strategy for Life in the
Empire 343
Chapter Overview 343
Who Is the Johannine Jesus? 344
Knowing and Believing in the Johannine Jesus 350
Opposition from the World 3.52
The Problem of “the Jews” in the Gospel of John 354
Focus Text: John 17 358
The Johannine Letters 360
Chapter Fourteen Review 362
Resources for Further Study 362
15 Following Christ in the Empire: Diverse Approaches in the New Testament 363
Chapter Overview 363
The Revelation to John: Visions of “Conquering” Roman Power 364
Focus Text: Revelation 17–18 370
Hebrews: Platonic Perspectives on Christ 373
1 Peter: Living as Aliens and Accommodating to the Empire 376
Conclusion: Three Different Relationships to the Roman Empire 378
Chapter Fifteen Review 379
Resources for Further Study 379
Epilogue: The Final Formation of the Jewish and Christian Bibles 381
Glossary 387
Index 401
