List of Contributors xxi
1 Energy Storage Solutions for Future Energy Systems 1
Andreas Hauer
1.1 The Role of Energy Storage 1
1.2 The Definition of Energy Storage 1
1.3 Technologies for Energy Storage 5
1.4 Applications for Energy Storage 11
Part I Electrochemical, Electrical, and Super Magnetic Energy Storages 15
2 An Introduction to Electrochemistry in Modern Power Sources 17
Frank C. Walsh, Andrew Cruden, and Peter J. Hall
2.1 Introduction 17
2.2 Electrode Reactions 17
2.3 Electrochemical Cells 18
2.4 The Case for Electrochemical Power Sources 19
2.5 The Thermodynamics of Electrochemical Cells 20
2.6 The Actual Cell Voltage: Thermodynamic, Electrode Kinetic, and Ohmic Losses 20
2.7 Faraday’s Laws and Charge Capacity 22
2.8 The Performance of Cells: Charge Capacity and Specific Energy Capability 23
2.9 Types of Electrochemical Device for Energy Conversion 23
3 Standalone Batteries for Power Backup and Energy Storage 31
Declan Bryans, Martin R Jiminez, Jennifer M Maxwell, Jon M Mitxelena, David Kerr, and Leonard E A Berlouis
3.1 Introduction 31
3.2 Standalone Battery Technologies 31
3.3 Comparisons 54
3.4 Conclusions 54
4 Environmental Aspects and Recycling of Battery Materials 61
Guangjin Zhao
4.1 Introduction 61
4.2 Classical Batteries 63
4.3 Summary 64
4.4 Future Perspectives 64
4.5 Future Developments 68
5 Supercapacitors for Short-term, High Power Energy Storage 71
Lingbin Kong, Maocheng Liu, Jianyun Cao, Rutao Wang, Weibin Zhang, Kun Yan, Xiaohong Li, and Frank C. Walsh
5.1 Introduction 71
5.2 Electrode Materials 73
5.3 Supercapacitor Devices 80
5.4 Conclusions 88
5.5 Outlook 89
6 Overview of Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage Technology 99
Jing Shi, Xiao Zhou, Yang Liu, Li Ren, Yuejin Tang, and Shijie Chen
6.1 Introduction 99
6.2 The Principle of SMES 99
6.3 Development Status of SMES 102
6.4 Development Trend of SMES 104
6.5 Research Topics for Developing SMES 107
6.6 Conclusions 109
7 Key Technologies of Superconducting Magnets for SMES 113
Ying Xu, Li Ren, Jing Shi, and Yuejin Tang
7.1 Introduction 113
7.2 The Development of SMES Magnets 116
7.3 Considerations in the Design of SMES Magnets 119
7.4 Current Leads of SMES Magnets 124
7.5 Quench Protection for SMES Magnets 128
7.6 Summary 132
8 Testing Technologies for Developing SMES 135
Jing Shi, Yuxiang Liao, Lihui Zhang, Ying Xu, Li Ren, Jingdong Li, and Yuejin Tang
8.1 Introduction 135
8.2 HTS Tape Property Test Method 135
8.3 Magnet Coils Experimental Methods 138
8.4 SMES Test 140
8.5 Conclusions 147
9 Superconducting Wires and Tapes for SMES 149
Yuejin Tang, Ying Xu, Sinian Yan, Feng Feng, and Guo Yan
9.1 Introduction 149
9.2 A Brief Explanation of Superconductivity 150
9.3 Wires Made from LTc Superconductors 157
9.4 Wires or Tapes Made from HTc Superconductors 158
9.5 Discussion 162
10 Cryogenic Technology 165
Li Ren, Ying Xu, and Yuejin Tang
10.1 Introduction 165
10.2 Cryogens 166
10.3 Cryo-cooler 170
10.4 Cryogenic System 173
10.5 Vacuum Technology 176
10.6 An Evaluation Method for Conduction-cooled SMES Cryogenic Cooling Systems 178
10.7 Case Study 181
11 Control Strategies for Different Application Modes of SMES 187
Jiakun Fang, Wei Yao, Jinyu Wen, and Shijie Cheng
11.1 Overview of the Control Strategies for SMES Applications 187
11.2 Robust Control for SMES in Coordination with Wind Generators 188
11.3 Anti-windup Compensation for SMES-Based Power System Damping Controller 196
11.4 Monitoring and Control Unit of SMES 204
11.5 Conclusion 208
Part II Mechanical Energy Storage and Pumped Hydro Energy Storage 211
12 Overview of Pumped Hydro Resource 213
Pal-Tore Storli
12.1 Pumped Hydro Storage Basic Concepts 213
12.2 Historic Perspective 226
12.3 Worldwide Installed Base 231
12.4 The Future for PHS 231
13 Pumped Storage Machines – Motor Generators 239
Stefanie Kemmer and Thomas Hildinger
13.1 Synchronous Machine Fixed Speed 240
13.2 Doubly fed Induction Machine Adjustable Speed (DFIM) 247
13.3 Synchronous Machine Adjustable Speed (FFIM) 252
14 Pumped Storage Machines – Ternary Units 257
Manfred Sallaberger and Thomas Gaal
14.1 Ternary Units 257
15 Hydro-Mechanical Equipment 273
Claudia Pollak-Reibenwein
15.1 Steel-lined Pressure Conduits 273
15.2 Typical Control and Shut-Off Devices for Pumped Storage Plants 284
16 Pumped Storage Machines - Hydraulic Short-circuit Operation 289
Thomas Gaal and Manfred Sallaberger
16.1 Hydraulic Short-circuit Operation 289
Part III Mechanical Energy Storage, Compressed Air Energy Storage, and Flywheels 303
17 Compressed Air Energy Storage: Are the Market and Technical Knowledge Ready? 305
Pierre Berest, Benoît Brouard, Louis Londe, and Arnaud Reveillere
17.1 Introduction 305
17.2 Historical Developments 307
17.3 Challenges Raised by Air Storage in Salt Caverns 308
17.4 (Selected) Recent Projects 314
17.5 Business Case 316
17.6 Conclusion 320
18 The Geology, Historical Background, and Developments in CAES 323
David J. Evans
18.1 Introduction 323
18.2 Operational Modes – Diabatic, Adiabatic, Isothermal (Heat), Isochoric, and Isobaric (Pressure) Operations 333
18.3 Brief Review of the Historical Origins of CAES – How It All Began and Where It Is Now 334
18.4 Overview of Underground (Geological) Storage Options 341
18.5 Summary 376
19 Compressed Air Energy Storage in Aquifer and Depleted Gas Storage Reservoirs 391
Michael J. King and George Moridis
19.1 Introduction 391
19.2 History of CAES Development 391
19.3 Power Train Requirements 393
19.4 How Does a CAES Energy Storage System Work? Matching the Storage System to CAES Power Train Requirements 394
19.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of CAES in Aquifer Structures and Depleted Gas Reservoirs 401
19.6 CAES Storage System Design Tools, Development, and Operation 403
19.7 Summary 405
20 Open Accumulator Isothermal Compressed Air Energy Storage (OA-ICAES) System 409
Perry Y. Li, Eric Loth, Chao (Chris) Qin, Terrence W. Simon, and James D. Van de Ven
20.1 Introduction 409
20.2 Open Accumulator Isothermal Compressed Air Energy Storage (OA-ICAES) System Architecture 412
20.3 Liquid Piston Isothermal Compressor/Expander 413
20.4 Using Water Droplet Spray to Enhance Heat Transfer 425
20.5 Systems and Control 429
20.6 Discussion 432
20.7 Conclusions 434
Part IV Chemical Energy Storage 439
21 Hydrogen (or Syngas) Generation – Solar Thermal 441
Jonathan Scheffe, Dylan McCord, and Diego Gordon
21.2 Solar Thermochemical Processes 447
22 Power-to-Liquids – Conversion of CO2 and Renewable H2 to Methanol 489
Robin J. White
22.1 Introduction 489
22.2 Methanol Synthesis 494
22.3 Catalysts for Methanol Synthesis 496
22.4 Transitioning to Sustainable Methanol Production 500
22.5 Elaboration of a Methanol Economy 505
22.6 Conclusion and Summary 512
23 Hydrogenation Energy Recovery – Small Molecule Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers and Catalytic Dehydrogenation 521
Jong-Hoo Choi, Dominic van der Waals, Thomas Zell, Robert Langer, and Martin H.G. Prechtl
23.1 Introduction 521
23.2 Methanol (CH3OH) 525
23.3 Formaldehyde/Methanediol (CH2O/CH2OHOH) 535
23.4 Formic Acid (HCO2H) 537
23.5 Other Alcohols, Diols, and Amino Alcohols 544
23.6 Summary and Outlook 550
24 Hydrogen Energy Recovery – H2-Based Fuel Cells 559
Nada Zamel and Ulf Groos
24.1 Introduction 559
24.2 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells 561
24.3 Topics of Research 569
24.4 Characterization Techniques 577
24.5 Conclusions 582
Part V Thermal Energy Storage 589
25 Thermal Energy Storage – An Introduction 591
Andreas Hauer and Eberhard Laevemann
25.1 Introduction 591
25.2 Characteristic Parameters of Thermal Energy Storage 592
25.3 The Physical Storage Principle – Sensible, Latent, and Thermochemical 596
25.4 Design of a Thermal Energy Storage and Integration into an Energy System 600
25.5 Thermal Energy Storage Classification 602
25.6 Conclusions 604
26 New Phase Change Materials for Latent Heat Storage 607
Elena Palomo del Barrio and Fouzia Achchaq
26.1 Introduction 607
26.2 Fundamentals, Materials, Groups, and Properties 608
26.3 Currently Used and Emerging Phase Change Materials 614
26.4 Approaches to Improve PCMs’ Properties 621
26.5 Commercial Status 627
26.6 Future Development Directions 627
27 Sorption Material Developments for TES Applications 631
Alenka Risti?
27.1 Introduction 631
27.2 Sorption Materials 635
27.3 Future Developments 647
28 Vacuum Super Insulated Thermal Storage Systems for Buildings and Industrial Applications 655
Thomas Beikircher and Matthias Rottmann
28.1 Introduction 655
28.2 VSI with Expanded Perlite for Highly Efficient and Economical Thermal Storages 658
28.3 Storage Media for Medium and High Temperatures 669
28.4 VSI and VSI Storages in Industrial Applications 671
28.5 Conclusions 672
29 Heat Transfer Enhancement for Latent Heat Storage Components 675
Jaume Gasia, Laia Miro, Alvaro de Gracia, and Luisa F. Cabeza
29.1 Introduction 675
29.2 Heat Transfer Enhancement Techniques 676
29.3 Technology Development and Commercial Status 690
30 Reactor Design for Thermochemical Energy Storage Systems 695
Wim Van Helden
30.1 Requirements for TCM Reactors 695
30.2 Charging and Discharging Processes in TCM Reactors 695
30.3 Types of Reactors and Examples of Design Solutions 699
30.4 Conclusions and Outlook 702
31 Phase Change Materials in Buildings – State of the Art 705
Thomas Haussmann, Tabea Obergfell, and Stefan Gschwander
31.1 Introduction 705
31.2 Materials 707
31.3 Example of Building Integration of PCM 710
31.4 Planning Boundary Conditions 722
31.5 Long Term Experience 725
32 Industrial Applications of Thermal Energy Storage Systems 729
Viktoria Martin and Ningwei Justin Chiu
32.1 Why Thermal Energy Storage in Industry? 729
32.2 Integration of TES in Industrial Scale Applications 734
32.3 Mobile TES in Innovative Energy Distribution 742
32.4 Concluding Remarks 744
33 Economy of Thermal Energy Storage Systems in Different Applications 749
Christoph Rathgeber, Eberhard Lavemann, and Andreas Hauer
33.1 Introduction 749
33.2 Methods to Evaluate Thermal Energy Storage Economics 749
33.3 Comparison of Acceptable and Realized Storage Capacity Costs in Different TES Applications 752
33.4 Discussion on the Major Influencing Factors on the Economics of Thermal Energy Storage 757
33.5 Conclusions 758
Part VI Energy Storage Concepts, Regulations, and Markets 761
34 Energy Storage Can Stop Global Warming 763
Halime Ö. Paksoy
34.1 Introduction 763
34.2 Energy Storage Technologies 765
34.3 Energy Storage Systems 766
34.4 The Potentials of Energy Storage 767
34.5 Policy Frameworks 771
34.6 Cross-cutting Aspects 772
34.7 Conclusions 773
35 Energy Storage Participation in Electricity Markets 775
Tom Brijs, Andreas Belderbos, Kris Kessels, Daan Six, Ronnie Belmans, and Frederik Geth
35.1 Introduction 775
35.2 Classification of Energy Storage Options 777
35.3 Techno-economic Energy Storage Characteristics 782
35.4 Energy Storage Applications 784
35.5 Interaction Market Opportunities and Technical Characteristics –Illustrative Case Studies 788
35.6 Conclusions 792
36 Public Perceptions and Acceptance of Energy Storage Technologies 795
Per Alex Soerensen
36.1 Introduction 795
36.2 Why Resistance? 795
36.3 Who Will Resist? 796
36.4 Cases 796
36.5 Drivers for Positive Public Perceptions and Acceptance 798
36.6 Is There a Manual for Citizen Involvement? 800
36.7 Perception of Acceptance of Energy Storage Technologies 801
37 Business Case for Energy Storage in Japan 805
Masaya Okumaya
37.1 Energy Consumption in Japan 805
37.2 Electricity Situation 806
37.3 Climate Condition and Cooling/heating Load 807
37.4 Situation of Thermal Energy Storage (TES) Spread 808
37.5 Variation of TES 809
37.6 Water Storage 810
37.7 Ice Storage 811
38 Energy Storage in the Electricity Market: Business Models and Regulatory Framework in Germany 817
Helena Teschner
38.1 Introduction 818
38.2 Business Models in Germany 819
38.3 Legal and Regulatory Framework – Opportunities and Barriers 829
38.4 Conclusion and Outlook 835
39 Integration of Renewable Energy by Distributed Energy Storages 839
Christian Doetsch and Anna Greve
39.1 Introduction 839
39.2 Usage of Variable Renewable Energies and Induced Problems 839
39.3 Energy Balancing Technologies and Options 843
39.4 Applications for Electric Energy Storages (Adapted from [4]) 845
39.5 Business Cases for Electric Energy Storages 847
39.6 Distributed Storage Concepts 848
39.7 Summary 849
40 Thermal Storages and Power to Heat 851
Per Alex Soerensen
40.1 Introduction 851
40.2 Why Power to Heat? 851
40.3 Technologies for Power to Heat 853
40.4 Examples of Power to Heat Concepts 865
40.5 The Future. Smart Energy Systems 868
Index 871
