An Introduction to the Properties of Engineering Materials

1 | Introduction.- 1.1 The fundamental nature of material properties.- 2 | Atomic Structure.- 2.1 Classification of the elements.- 2.2 Valency.- 2.3 Atomic number.- 2.4 The Bohr-Rutherford atom.- 2.5 The single-electron system.- 2.6 Wave-particle duality.- 2.7 Wave mechanics.- 2.8 Electron states in atoms.- 2.9 Many-electron atoms.- 2.10 Relationship of chemical behaviour to electron structure.- 2.11 X-ray spectra.- 2.12 The bonding between atoms.- 3 | Aggregations of Atoms-The Fluid States.- 3.1 Introduction.- Gases.- 3.2 The behaviour of a gas.- 3.3 Mole.- 3.4 The kinetic theory of gases.- 3.5 Calculation of the pressure of an ideal gas.- 3.6 Energy and velocity of molecules.- 3.7 Maxwellian distribution of velocities.- 3.8 Mean free path.- 3.9 Variation of ? and K with pressure.- 3.10 Deviations from the gas laws.- 3.11 Van der Waals' equation.- 3.12 The properties of van der Waals' equation.- 3.13 Comparison of van der Waals' equation with experiment.- Liquids.- 3.14 The behaviour of liquids.- 3.15 Surface tension.- 3.16 Vapour pressure.- 3.17 Viscosity.- 3.18 Thermal conductivity.- 4 | Aggregations of Atoms-Solids.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 The crystalline state.- 4.3 Space lattices.- 4.4 Crystal systems.- 4.5 Indices of planes.- 4.6 Indices of direction.- 4.7 The common crystal lattices.- 4.8 Face-centred cubic system.- 4.9 Body-centred cubic system.- 4.10 Close-packed hexagonal system.- 4.11 Stacking of close-packed layers.- 4.12 Types of crystal and relation to mechanical properties.- 4.13 Interatomic forces in solids.- 5 | Crystal Growth and Size.- 5.1 Micrographic examination.- 5.2 Formation of liquid drop from vapour.- 5.3 Crystal growth from molten metal.- 5.4 Crystal shapes.- 5.5 Crystal pattern in castings.- 5.6 Grain growth in strain-free solid metal.- 5.7 Grain growth in strained solid metal.- 5.8 Specification of grain size.- 5.9 Growth of single crystals.- 6 | Aggregations of Two Sorts of Atoms-Binary Alloys.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 Mixtures of two liquids.- 6.3 Mixtures in the solid state.- 6.4 Solid solutions.- 6.5 Effect of atomic size.- 6.6 Factors controlling substitutional solid solubility.- 6.7 Intermediate compounds.- 6.8 Formulae of intermediate compounds.- 6.9 Phase.- 7 | Equilibrium Diagrams.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 Equilibrium diagram for two liquids.- 7.3 Rules for interpreting binary equilibrium diagrams.- 7.4 Equilibrium diagram for the case of complete solid insolubility.- 7.5 Cooling curves.- 7.6 Equilibrium diagram for complete solid solubility.- 7.7 Equilibrium diagram for partial solid solubility.- 7.8 Intermediate compounds.- 7.9 Peritectic reaction.- 7.10 Comparison of eutectic and peritectic reactions.- 7.11 Changes occurring below the solidus.- 7.12 Allotropy.- 7.13 Eutectoid reaction.- 7.14 Peritectoid reaction.- 7.15 Ternary equilibrium diagrams.- 7.16 Ternary system with complete solid solubility.- 7.17 Ternary eutectic system.- 7.18 Rules for phase compositions and quantities in a ternary equilibrium diagram.- 8 | The Iron-carbon System.- 8.1 Allotropic forms of pure iron.- 8.2 Solubility of carbon in iron.- 8.3 Cementite and ledeburite.- 8.4 Modifications of allotropic change temperatures.- 8.5 Eutectoid and peritectic decomposition of austenite.- 8.6 Nomenclature of iron-carbon alloys.- 8.7 Microstructures of steels.- 8.8 Phase-transformation diagrams.- 8.9 Nomenclature of change points.- 8.10 Determination of change points.- 8.11 Cast irons.- 9 | Thermal Energy.- 9.1 Kinetic energy of a gas molecule.- 9.2 Specific heat of a gas.- 9.3 Specific heat of a solid.- 9.4 Experimental results for simple substances.- 9.5 Thermal expansion.- 9.6 Stable and metastable states.- 9.7 A simple example of a metastable state.- 9.8 Activation energy.- 9.9 Maxwell-Boltzmann law.- 9.10 Arrhenius' rate law.- 9.11 Diffusion.- 9.12 Chemical reactions.- 9.13 Thermionic emission.- 10 | The Deformation of Metal Single Crystals.- 10.1 Introduction.- 10.2 Geometry of deformation by slip.- 10.3 Deformation by twinning.- 10.4 Resolved shear stress.- 10.5 Load-extension curves.- 10.6 Relationship of elongation to strain.- 10.7 Shear hardening curves.- 10.8 The nature of slip.- 10.9 Theoretical shear strength.- 10.10 The geometry of dislocations.- 10.11 Strain field around a screw dislocation.- 10.12 Strain field around an edge dislocation.- 10.13 Force on a dislocation line.- 10.14 Forces between dislocations.- 10.15 Tension of a dislocation line.- 10.16 The origin of dislocations.- 11 | The Strengthening of Metals.- 11.1 Introduction.- 11.2 Dislocations and obstacles.- 11.3 Polycrystalline materials.- 11.4 Solid solution alloying.- 11.5 Two phases in equilibrium.- 11.6 Dispersion hardening.- 11.7 Work hardening.- 11.8 Quench hardening.- 11.9 Precipitation hardening.- 11.10 Dispersed oxide hardening.- 12 | Mechanical Testing of Polycrystalline Materials.- 12.1 Introduction.- 12.2 Tensile testing machines.- 12.3 Tensile specimens.- 12.4 Behaviour of materials in tension.- 12.5 Load-extension curve for a ductile material.- 12.6 Yield-point phenomena.- 12.7 The influence of test-piece dimensions.- 12.8 True stress.- 12.9 Logarithmic strain.- 12.10 Ideal plastic material.- 12.11 Other related tests.- 12.12 Compression tests.- 12.13 Hardness tests.- 12.14 Brinell hardness.- 12.15 Diamond pyramid hardness.- 12.16 Rockwell hardness.- 12.17 Relationship of HV to yield stress.- 12.18 Relationship between tensile strength and HV.- 13 | Plastic Flow and Fracture.- 13.1 Introduction.- 13.2 Plastic flow under multi-axial stresses.- 13.3 Ductile fracture.- 13.4 Actual failures of engineering components.- 13.5 Theoretical cohesive strength of a solid.- 13.6 Actual cohesive strength.- 13.7 Griffith equation.- 13.8 Toughness.- 13.9 The influence of the notch.- 13.10 Notch impact tests.- 13.11 Factors of Izod and Charpy tests.- 13.12 Uses of notch tests.- 13.13 Notch brittleness of mild steel.- 13.14 Transition temperatures.- 13.15 Tests on large plates.- 13.16 Casualties due to brittle fracture.- 13.17 The effect of metallurgical factors.- 13.18 Fracture mechanics.- 13.19 Stress intensity factor.- 13.20 Modified Griffith equation.- 13.21 Plane stress and plane strain conditions.- 13.22 Failure modes.- 13.23 Geometrical effects.- 13.24 Determination of KIc.- 13.25 Relationship of design to fracture.- 14 | Fatigue.- 14.1 Failure due to fatigue.- 14.2 Characteristic of fatigue failures.- 14.3 Detection of fatigue cracks.- 14.4 Mechanism of fatigue failure.- 14.5 Fatigue crack growth.- 14.6 Fatigue testing.- 14.7 Fatigue testing machines.- 14.8 Results of fatigue tests.- 14.9 Effect of mean stress.- 14.10 Variation of fatigue limit.- 14.11 Cumulative damage effects.- 14.12 Crack growth rates.- 14.13 Effect of notches.- 14.14 Relation of design to fatigue.- 14.15 Corrosion fatigue.- 15 | Creep.- 15.1 Creep phenomena.- 15.2 Creep testing machines.- 15.3 Characteristics of creep curves.- 15.4 Presentation of creep results.- 15.5 Creep and design.- 15.6 Mechanisms of creep.- 15.7 Deformation mechanism maps.- 15.8 Creep fracture mechanisms.- 15.9 Fracture mechanism maps.- 15.10 Development of creep-resisting alloys.- 15.11 Creep-fatigue interaction.- 16 | Heat Treatment of Steel.- 16.1 Introduction.- 16.2 Transformations on heating.- 16.3 Transformations on cooling.- 16.4 Quenching temperature and rate.- 16.5 Isothermal transformation diagrams.- 16.6 Isothermal transformation diagrams for hypoeutectoid and hypereutectoid steels.- 16.7 Separation of pearlite and bainite knees.- 16.8 Continuous cooling transformation.- 16.9 Retained austenite.- 16.10 Grain size of steel and its effects.- 16.11 Determination of austenite grain size.- 16.12 Tempering.- 16.13 Mechanical property changes with tempering.- 16.14 Special heat treatments.- 16.15 Hardenability.- 16.16 Measurement of hardenability.- 16.17 Cylinder series test.- 16.18 Jominy end-quench test.- 16.19 Relation of ideal critical diameter to end-quenchcurve.- 16.20 Ruling section.- 17 | Alloy Steels.- 17.1 Purposes of alloying.- 17.2 Effect of alloying elements on iron-carbon equilibrium diagram.- 17.3 Effect of alloying elements on isothermal transformation diagram.- 17.4 Effect of alloying elements on tempering.- 17.5 Effect of alloying elements on mechanical properties.- 17.6 Classification of alloy steels.- 17.7 High-tensile structural steels.- 17.8 Alloy steels used in a fully heat-treated condition.- 17.9 Boron steels.- 17.10 Ausformed steels.- 17.11 Maraging steels.- 17.12 Corrosion and heat-resistant steels.- 17.13 Case hardening steels.- 17.14 Tool steels.- 17.15 Steels for cryogenic applications.- 17.16 Special-purpose steels.- 18 | Corrosion.- 18.1 Introduction.- 18.2 Oxidation and reduction.- 18.3 Direct chemical corrosion by dry gases.- 18.4 Growth of oxide layer.- 18.5 The ionization of water.- 18.6 Electrochemical corrosion.- 18.7 Anodic and cathodic reactions.- 18.8 Pourbaix diagrams.- 18.9 Forms of metallic corrosion.- 18.10 Stress corrosion cracking and fracture mechanics.- 18.11 Prevention of corrosion.- 19 | Welding.- 19.1 Nomenclature.- 19.2 Heat distribution in the vicinity of the weld.- 19.3 Metallurgy of weld metal and heat-affected zone.- 19.4 Welds in steel.- 19.5 Welds in non-allotropic materials.- 20 | Inorganic Non-metallic Materials.- 20.1 Introduction.- 20.2 Deformation of crystalline ceramics.- 20.3 Properties and uses of some engineering ceramics.- 20.4 Silicate structures.- 20.5 Vitreous structures.- 20.6 Mechanical behaviour of glasses.- 20.7 Glass-ceramics.- 20.8 Cermets.- 20.9 Fabrication of ceramic articles.- 20.10 Asbestos.- 20.11 Cement and concrete.- 21 | Organic Materials.- 21.1 The nature of organic compounds.- 21.2 Saturated hydrocarbons.- 21.3 Unsaturated hydrocarbons.- 21.4 Aromatic hydrocarbons.- 21.5 Addition polymerization.- 21.6 Condensation polymerization.- 21.7 Relation of mechanical properties to polymer shape.- 21.8 Elastomers.- 21.9 Crystallinity in polymers.- 21.10 Wood.- 21.11 Epoxy resins.- 21.12 Fillers.- 21.13 Plasticizers.- 21.14 Silicones.- 22 | Composites.- 22.1 Introduction.- 22.2 Reinforcing materials for fibrous composites.- 22.3 Manufacture of fibre composites.- 22.4 Elastic properties of a composite.- 22.5 Strength of a fibre composite.- 22.6 Specific stiffness and specific strength.- 22.7 Toughness of fibre composites.- 22.8 Fracture toughness of polyblends.- 23 | The Nucleus.- 23.1 The structure of the nucleus.- 23.2 Isotopes.- 23.3 Mass defect.- 23.4 Nuclear reactions.- 23.5 Rate of radioactive decay.- 23.6 Interaction of radiation with matter.- 23.7 Reaction cross-sections.- 23.8 Radiation damage due to scattering.- 23.9 Radiation damage due to absorption.- 23.10 Conclusion.- Appendix I-Some equilibrium diagrams of interest and importance.- Appendix II-Equilibrium and free energy.- Appendix III-SI units.- Answers to Numerical Questions.