About the Authors xiii
Preface xv
Acknowledgments xvii
Part I Attribute-Based Encryption (ABE) 1
1 Foundation of Attribute-Based Encryption 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.1.1 Symmetric Encryption 4
1.1.2 Asymmetric Key Encryption 4
1.1.3 Identity-Based Encryption 5
1.2 Functional Encryption 7
1.2.1 Applications of Attribute-Based Encryption 8
1.2.2 Problems with Attribute-Based Encryption 9
1.2.3 A Brief History of Security Proof of Functional Encryption 9
1.2.4 Dual System of Encryption 10
1.2.5 Summary 11
References 12
2 Mathematical Background 15
2.1 Group Theory 15
2.1.1 Law of Composition 15
2.1.2 Groups 15
2.1.3 Subgroups 16
2.1.4 Homomorphisms 17
2.1.5 Cyclic Group 17
2.2 Ring Theory 20
2.2.1 Ideals and Quotient Rings 21
2.2.2 Euler’s Totient Function 22
2.2.3 Polynomial Rings 22
2.2.4 Irreducible and Monic Polynomials 22
2.2.5 Field Theory 23
2.2.5.1 Quotient Field 24
2.2.6 Field Characteristic 24
2.2.7 Algebraic Extension Fields 24
2.3 Elliptic Curves 24
2.3.1 Plane Curve 24
2.3.2 Group Operations on Elliptic Curves 26
2.3.2.1 Point Addition 26
2.3.2.2 Point Doubling 27
2.4 Divisors and Bilinear Map 28
2.4.1 Divisors 28
2.4.2 The degree and Support of d 29
2.4.3 The Divisor of a Function f on E 29
2.4.4 Equivalence of Divisors 30
2.4.5 Bilinear Map 31
2.4.6 Weil Pairing 31
2.4.7 Miller’s Algorithm 32
2.4.8 The Tate Pairing 34
2.5 Summary 36
References 36
3 Attribute-Based Encryption 37
3.1 Introduction 37
3.2 Basic Components of ABE Construction 39
3.2.1 Secret-Sharing Schemes 39
3.2.2 Polynomial Interpolation 41
3.2.2.1 Polynomials Over the Reals 41
3.2.2.2 Polynomials Modulus P 44
3.2.3 Shamir Secret Sharing 45
3.2.4 Verifiable Secret Sharing (VSS) 47
3.2.4.1 Algorithm for Converting Access Structure Into LSSS Matrix 47
3.2.4.2 Access Structure Example 48
3.2.4.3 Algorithms in Attribute-Based Encryption 49
3.2.5 Properties of Attribute-Based Encryption 51
3.2.6 Prime Order Group 51
3.3 Cryptographic Hard Assumptions 51
3.3.1 Composite Order Bilinear Groups 54
3.3.2 Complexity Assumptions 55
3.4 Provable Security 56
3.5 Security Notions 57
3.5.1 Summary 57
References 58
4 Data Access Control 61
4.1 Introduction 61
4.1.1 Coarse-Grained 62
4.1.2 Fine-Grained Access Control 63
4.1.3 Importance of Fine-Grained Access Control 64
4.2 Concerns About Cloud-Based Access Control that Are Trustworthy 65
4.2.1 Encryption Access Control 65
4.2.2 Requirements for Encryption-Based Access Control 67
4.3 Summary 67
References 68
5 Selective Secure ABE Schemes Based on Prime Order Group 69
5.1 Introduction 69
5.1.1 Selective Security Model for KP-ABE 70
5.1.2 Selective Security Model for CP-ABE 70
5.1.3 ABE Schemes 71
5.2 The KP-ABE Scheme 71
5.2.1 Concrete Scheme Construction 71
5.2.2 Security Proof 73
5.3 The CP-ABE Scheme 74
5.3.1 Concrete Scheme Construction 74
5.3.2 Security Proof 76
5.4 Summary 77
References 77
6 Fully Secure ABE Schemes Based on Composite and Prime Order Groups 79
6.1 Introduction 79
6.2 A Fully Secure CP-ABE from Composite Order Group 81
6.2.1 CP-ABE Construction 82
6.2.2 Adaptive Security Proof 83
6.2.2.1 Description of Hybrids 83
6.2.3 Security Proof 84
6.3 A Fully Secure KP-ABE Scheme Based on Dual Vector Space 84
6.3.1 KP-ABE Construction 85
6.3.2 Adaptive Security 87
6.3.3 Security Proof 88
6.4 KP-ABE Scheme Based on Matrix 89
6.4.1 The Scheme 89
6.4.2 Adaptive Security 90
6.4.3 Security Proof 91
6.5 Summary 91
References 92
Part II Concepts of Blockchain Technology 95
7 Blockchain Technology 97
7.1 Introduction 97
7.1.1 History 97
7.1.2 Preliminary Concepts of Blockchain Technology 98
7.1.3 Characteristics of Blockchain 100
7.1.4 Evolution and Types of Blockchain 104
7.1.4.1 The Blockchain 1.0 104
7.1.4.2 Blockchain 2.0 104
7.1.4.3 Blockchain 3.0 105
7.1.5 Permissionless vs Permissioned Blockchains 105
7.1.6 Types of Blockchain 105
7.2 Architecture of Blockchain 106
7.2.1 Architecture of Blockchain 1.0 (Cryptocurrencies) 106
7.2.2 Block 106
7.2.3 Node 107
7.2.4 Types of Blockchain Nodes 107
7.2.5 Consensus 110
7.3 Architecture of Blockchain 2.0 (Smart Contracts) 110
7.3.1 Introduction to Smart Contracts 110
7.3.2 How Smart Contracts Work 111
7.3.3 Example of Smart Contract 111
7.3.4 Uses of Smart Contracts 111
7.3.5 Advantages of Smart Contracts 112
7.3.6 Limitations of Smart Contracts 112
7.4 Architecture of Blockchain 3.0 (Blockchain Applications) 113
7.4.1 Consensus Mechanism 113
7.5 Blockchain 4.0 118
7.5.1 Blockchain 4.0 Applications 119
7.5.2 Metaverse 119
7.5.3 Industrial Revolution 4.0 120
7.5.4 Blockchain 4.0 for Businesses 120
References 120
8 Scaling-Out Blockchains with Sharding 125
8.1 Introduction 125
8.1.1 Scalability Trilemma 126
8.1.2 Nakamoto-Based – Monoxide – Chu-ko-nu Mining 128
8.1.3 Elastico 128
8.1.4 OmniLedger 129
8.1.5 Rapid Chain 130
8.1.6 Learnings 131
8.1.7 General Improvements 132
8.1.7.1 Reducing Transaction Latency 133
8.1.7.2 Inter-Communication Protocol 133
8.1.7.3 Shards Ledger Pruning 134
8.1.7.4 Decentralized Bootstrapping 134
8.1.7.5 Securing the Epoch Reconfiguration 134
8.1.7.6 Sharded Smart Contract 135
8.1.7.7 Replay Attacks and Defenses Against Cross-Shard Protocols 135
8.2 Off-Chain Solution: Layer 2 Solutions 136
8.2.1 State Channels 136
8.2.2 Side Chains of the Plasma 138
8.2.3 Problems with Data Accessibility 139
8.3 Rollups 139
8.3.1 Rollups Based on Zero Knowledge 140
8.3.2 Proofs of Zero-Knowledge 140
8.3.3 Protocol Schnorr 142
8.3.4 Protocol Pedersen 143
8.3.5 zk-SNARKs 144
8.4 Summary 144
References 145
Part III Applying Blockchain with Real-Time Technologies 147
9 Blockchain Technology for Supply Management 149
9.1 Introduction 149
9.1.1 System Design 153
9.1.2 System Architecture 153
9.1.3 Entities of the System 154
9.1.3.1 Users 154
9.1.4 Smart Contract Control 157
9.1.5 Blockchain Network 157
9.1.5.1 Processing Nodes 157
9.1.5.2 System Application Layer 158
9.1.5.3 Storage Infrastructure 158
9.1.6 System Decryption 158
9.1.7 Blocks 159
9.1.7.1 Block Design 160
9.2 System Flow 163
9.2.1 System Advantages 163
9.2.2 Conclusion 164
References 165
10 Satellite Communication 167
10.1 Introduction 167
10.1.1 Low-Orbit Constellation Communication Networks 169
10.1.2 Interstellar Link Length 171
10.1.3 Model of Satellite Motion 171
10.1.4 Edge Computing Technologies 172
10.2 Analysis of Edge Computing Requirements of Low-Orbit Constellation Communication Networks 175
10.2.1 Design of Edge Computing Architecture for Low-Orbit Constellation Communication Networks 175
10.2.2 Satellite 176
10.2.3 System Entities 180
10.2.4 System Process Flow 180
10.2.5 Security Properties 183
10.3 Summary 183
References 183
11 Foundation of Information-Centric Communication 185
11.1 Introduction 185
11.2 Information-Centric Communication 185
11.3 Name-Based Routing of Content 187
11.4 Benefits of Using ICN 187
11.5 Cost-Efficient and Scalable Distribution of Content Design Principles 189
11.6 ICN Design Challenges 190
11.6.1 Content Naming 190
11.6.2 Caching of Content 191
11.6.3 Data Integrity 192
11.6.4 Resolution System’s Scalability and Name-Based Routing 192
References 193
12 Security Overall in Information-Centric Networks 195
12.1 Introduction 195
12.2 Content-Centric Network (CCN) Architecture 195
12.3 Naming System Design 197
12.4 Secure Naming Scheme for Information-Centric Networks 198
12.5 Data Transmission – Content Delivery 198
12.6 Traffic Load in Network Caching 199
12.6.1 Store Unique Naming of Content in Caches 200
12.6.2 Storage Limitation in Caching Space Devices 201
12.7 Content’s Freshness Detection 201
12.8 ICN Security 201
12.9 Attacks in ICN Architectures 202
12.10 ICN Attributes to Ensure Security Threats 204
12.11 Traffic Analysis and Prediction 204
12.12 Some Key Problem Statements 205
12.13 Blockchain-Based ICN Scheme Improvement 206
12.13.1 Protection Against DDos 206
12.14 A Secured Information-Centric Network Based on Blockchain 206
12.14.1 Blockchain-Based ICN Structure 207
12.14.1.1 Data Integrity 207
12.15 Attribute-Based Encryption Scheme for the Information-Centric Network 208
12.15.1 Applying Ciphertext-Policy ABE (CP-ABE) Scheme in ICN 209
12.15.2 System Design of CP-ABE Scheme in ICN 210
References 212
13 Subscriber Data Management System Based on Blockchain 215
13.1 Introduction 215
13.1.1 Motivation 216
13.1.2 Problem Statement 216
13.1.3 Contributions 216
13.2 Literature Review 217
13.3 System Design Description 217
13.3.1 Assumptions 217
13.3.2 Ciphertext-Policy Attribute-Based Encryption (CP-ABE) 218
13.3.3 CP-ABE Construction 218
13.3.4 System Components 219
13.3.4.1 Data Subscribers (DSs) 219
13.3.4.2 Data Providers (DPs) 220
13.3.4.3 Key Generation and Distribution Center (KGDC) 220
13.3.4.4 IPFS Distributed Storage 220
13.3.4.5 Blockchain Platform 220
13.3.5 Process Description 222
13.3.5.1 Subscriber Registration 224
13.3.5.2 Subscriber Data Storage 224
13.3.5.3 Subscriber Data Request 224
13.3.6 Benefits of Proposed Design 225
13.3.7 Security Requirements 226
13.4 Summary 227
References 227
14 A Secure Data-Sharing Blockchain-Based Crowdfunding System 229
14.1 Introduction 229
14.2 Literature Review 231
14.2.1 Present-Day Centralized Crowdfunding 231
14.2.2 Crowdfunding Models 233
14.2.3 Problems of Traditional Crowdfunding 234
14.2.4 Blockchain-Based Crowdfunding 234
14.2.5 Advantages of Blockchain-Based Crowdfunding 235
14.3 Proposed System 236
14.3.1 System Model 236
14.3.1.1 Key Components 237
14.3.2 System Framework Overview 238
14.3.2.1 Application Layer 239
14.3.2.2 Blockchain Layer 239
14.3.2.3 Data Storage Layer 239
14.3.3 System Assumptions and Threat Model 240
14.3.4 Process Description 240
14.3.5 Smart Contract Interactions 241
14.3.5.1 User Registration Contract (URC) 241
14.3.5.2 User Verification Contract (UVC) 241
14.3.5.3 Project Data Access Contract (PDAC) 241
14.3.6 Concrete Implementation 241
14.3.6.1 User Register 242
14.3.6.2 Data Encrypt 242
14.3.6.3 Data Search 242
14.3.6.4 Fine-Grained Access Authorization 242
14.3.6.5 Data Decrypt 243
14.3.6.6 Transaction Confirmation 243
14.3.7 Security Requirements 243
14.3.7.1 Fine-Grained Access Control 243
14.3.7.2 Key Counterfeiting 243
14.3.7.3 Data Integrity 244
14.4 Summary 244
References 244
Index 247
