Contributors xvii
Part I General Overview of Biotechnology for Industrial Segments: An Industrial Approach 1
1 An Overview of Biotechnological Processes in the Food Industry 3
Bianca M.P. Silveira, Mayara C.S. Barcelos, Kele A.C. Vespermann, Franciele M. Pelissari, and Gustavo Molina
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Biotechnological Process Applied to Food Products 4
1.2.1 Organic Acids 4
1.2.2 Flavors 5
1.2.3 Polysaccharides 6
1.2.4 Amino Acids 6
1.2.5 Enzymes 7
1.2.6 Surfactants 7
1.2.7 Pigments 8
1.3 Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) 9
1.4 Future Perspectives of Biotechnological Processes in the Food Industry 10
1.5 Concluding Remarks and Perspectives 11
References 12
2 Status of Biotechnological Processes in the Pharmaceutical Industry 21
Natalia Videira, Robson Tramontina, Victoria Ramos Sodre, and Fabiano Jares Contesini
2.1 Introduction 21
2.2 Main Biotechnological Products in the Pharmaceutical Industry 23
2.2.1 Antibiotics in the Pharmaceutical Industry 23
2.2.2 Enzymes in the Pharmaceutical Industry 24
2.2.3 Antibodies in the Pharmaceutical Industry 27
2.3 Prospects for Area Development 33
2.3.1 Patent Generation 33
2.3.2 Perspectives for Biotechnology in the Pharmaceutical Sector 35
2.4 Conclusion 38
References 39
3 Current Status of Biotechnological Processes in the Biofuel Industries 47
Gustavo Pagotto Borin, Rafael Ferraz Alves, and Antonio Djalma Nunes Ferraz Junior
3.1 Introduction 47
3.2 Biofuels and an Overview of the Industrial Processes 49
3.2.1 Bioethanol 49
3.2.2 Biodiesel 53
3.2.3 Biobutanol 54
3.2.4 Biogas 56
3.2.5 Microalgal Biomass for Biofuels Production 61
3.3 Conclusion 62
References 62
Part II Biotechnological Research and Production of Food Ingredients 71
4 Research, Development, and Production of Microalgal and Microbial Biocolorants 73
Laurent Dufosse
4.1 Introduction 73
4.2 Carotenoids 74
4.2.1 Lutein and Zeaxanthin 74
4.2.2 Aryl Carotenoids (Orange Colors and Highly Active Antioxidants) are Specific to Some Microorganisms 77
4.2.3 C50 Carotenoids (Sarcinaxanthin, Decaprenoxanthin) 78
4.2.4 Techniques for the Production of Novel Carotenoids with Improved Color Strength/Stability/Antioxidant Properties 79
4.3 Azaphilones 80
4.3.1 Toward Mycotoxin-Free Monascus Red 80
4.3.2 Monascus-Like Pigments from Nontoxigenic Fungal Strains 83
4.4 Anthraquinones 84
4.4.1 Fungal Natural Red 84
4.4.2 Other Fungal Anthraquinones 85
4.5 Phycobiliproteins 85
4.6 Conclusion 87
References 89
5 Prospective Research and Current Technologies for Bioflavor Production 93
Marina Gabriel Pessoa, Bruno Nicolau Paulino, Gustavo Molina, and Glaucia Maria Pastore
5.1 Introduction 93
5.2 Microbial Production of Bioflavors 100
5.2.1 Biotransformation of Terpenes 100
5.2.2 De Novo Synthesis 104
5.3 Enzymatic Production of Bioflavors 108
5.4 Conclusion 112
References 112
6 Research and Production of Biosurfactants for the Food Industry 125
Eduardo J. Gudina and Ligia R. Rodrigues
6.1 Introduction 125
6.2 Biosurfactants as Food Additives 126
6.3 Biosurfactants as Powerful Antimicrobial and Anti-Adhesive Weapons for the Food Industry 129
6.4 Potential Role of Biosurfactants in New Nano-Solutions for the Food Industry 134
6.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 135
Acknowledgments 136
References 136
7 Fermentative Production of Microbial Exopolysaccharides 145
Jochen Schmid and Volker Sieber
7.1 Introduction 145
7.2 Cultivation Media and Renewable Resources 147
7.3 Bioreactor Geometries and Design 148
7.4 Fermentation Strategies for Microbial Exopolysaccharide Production 152
7.5 Approaches to Reduce Fermentation Broth Viscosity 153
7.6 Polymer Byproducts and Purity 154
7.7 Downstream Processing of Microbial Exopolysaccharides 155
7.7.1 Removal of Cell Biomass 155
7.7.2 Precipitation of the Polysaccharides 156
7.7.3 Dewatering/Drying of the Polysaccharides 158
7.8 Conclusions 159
References 159
8 Research and Production of Microbial Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids 167
Gwendoline Christophe, Pierre Fontanille, and Christian Larroche
8.1 Introduction 167
8.2 Lipids Used for Food Supplement 168
8.2.1 PUFAs: Omega-3 and Omega-6 Families 168
8.2.2 Role of PUFAs in Health 169
8.3 Microbial Lipids 170
8.3.1 Biosynthesis in Oleaginous Microorganisms 170
8.3.2 Microorganisms Involved in PUFAs Production 175
8.4 Production Strategies 182
8.4.1 Culture Conditions 182
8.5 Process Strategies 185
8.5.1 Modes of Culture 185
8.5.2 Substrates 186
8.5.3 Metabolic Engineering 186
8.6 Conclusions 187
References 187
9 Research and Production of Organic Acids and Industrial Potential 195
Sandeep Kumar Panda, Lopamudra Sahu, Sunil Kumar Behera, and Ramesh Chandra Ray
9.1 Introduction: History and Current Trends 195
9.2 Current and Future Markets for Organic Acids 196
9.3 Types of Organic Acids 196
9.3.1 Citric Acid 197
9.3.2 Acetic Acid 198
9.3.3 Propionic Acid (PA) 198
9.3.4 Succinic Acid 199
9.3.5 Lactic Acid 200
9.3.6 Other Organic Acids 200
9.4 Metabolic/Genetic Engineering: Trends in Organic Acid Technology 201
9.5 Research Gaps and Techno-Economic Feasibility 202
9.6 Conclusion 204
References 204
10 Research and Production of Microbial Polymers for Food Industry 211
Sinem Selvin Selvi, Edina Eminagic, Muhammed Yusuf Kandur, Emrah Ozcan, Ceyda Kasavi, and Ebru Toksoy Oner
10.1 Introduction 211
10.1.1 Biosynthesis of Microbial Polymers 212
10.2 Levan 213
10.2.1 General Properties of Levan 213
10.2.2 Production Processes for Levan 213
10.2.3 Food Applications of Levan 216
10.3 Pullulan 216
10.3.1 General Properties of Pullulan 216
10.3.2 Production Processes of Pullulan 216
10.3.3 Food Applications of Pullulan 218
10.4 Alginate 218
10.4.1 General Properties of Alginate 218
10.4.2 Production Processes for Alginate 218
10.4.3 Food Applications of Alginate 219
10.5 Curdlan 219
10.5.1 General Properties of Curdlan 219
10.5.2 Production Processes for Curdlan 220
10.5.3 Food Applications of Curdlan 221
10.6 Gellan Gum 221
10.6.1 General Properties of Gellan Gum 221
10.6.2 Production Processes for Gellan Gum 221
10.6.3 Food Applications of Gellan Gum 222
10.7 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) 223
10.7.1 General Properties of PHAs 223
10.7.2 Food Applications of PHAs 225
10.8 Scleroglucan 225
10.8.1 General Properties of Scleroglucan 225
10.8.2 Production Processes for Scleroglucan 226
10.8.3 Food Applications of Scleroglucans 226
10.9 Xanthan Gum 226
10.9.1 General Properties of Xanthan Gum 226
10.9.2 Production Processes of Xanthan Gum 227
10.9.3 Food Applications of Xanthan Gum 227
10.10 Dextran 228
10.10.1 General Properties of Dextran 228
10.10.2 Production Processes of Dextran 229
10.10.3 Food Applications of Dextran 230
10.11 Conclusions 230
References 232
11 Research and Production of Microbial Functional Sugars and Their Potential for Industry 239
Helen Treichel, Simone Maria Golunski, Aline Frumi Camargo, Thamarys Scapini, Tatiani Andressa Modkovski, Bruno Venturin, Eduarda Roberta Bordin, Vanusa Rossetto, and Altemir Jose Mossi
11.1 Introduction 239
11.2 Bioactive Compounds 240
11.2.1 Probiotics 240
11.2.2 Prebiotics 241
11.3 Production Technology for Probiotic Strains 243
11.4 Stabilization Technology for Probiotic Strains 244
11.4.1 Microencapsulation 244
11.4.2 Spray Drying 246
11.4.3 Freeze Drying 246
11.4.4 Fluidized Bed and Vacuum Drying 247
11.4.5 Other Technologies 247
11.5 Study of Scale-Up Process: Advances, Difficulties, and Limitations Achieved 248
11.6 Potential Development of the Area and Future Prospects 248
11.7 Conclusion 249
References 250
12 Research and Production of Ingredients Using Unconventional Raw Materials as Alternative Substrates 255
Susana Rodriguez-Couto
12.1 Introduction 255
12.2 Solid-State Fermentation (SSF) 256
12.3 Production of Food Ingredients from Unconventional Raw Materials by SSF 257
12.3.1 Organic Acids 257
12.3.2 Phenolic Compounds 264
12.3.3 Flavor and Aroma Compounds 265
12.3.4 Pigments 266
12.4 Outlook 267
References 267
Part III Biotechnological Research and Production of Biomolecules 273
13 Genetic Engineering as a Driver for Biotechnological Developments and Cloning Tools to Improve Industrial Microorganisms 275
Cintia Lacerda Ramos, Leonardo de Figueiredo Vilela, and Rosane Freitas Schwan
13.1 Introduction 275
13.2 Microorganisms and Metabolites of Industrial Interest 275
13.2.1 Primary Metabolites 276
13.2.2 Secondary Metabolites 277
13.2.3 Microbial Enzymes 278
13.3 The Culture-Independent Method for Biotechnological Developments 279
13.4 Tools and Methodologies Applied to GMOs Generation 280
13.5 Conclusion 285
References 285
14 Advances in Biofuel Production by Strain Development in Yeast from Lignocellulosic Biomass 289
Aravind Madhavan, Raveendran Sindhu, K.B. Arun, Ashok Pandey, Parameswaran Binod, and Edgard Gnansounou
14.1 Introduction 289
14.2 Improvement of Ethanol Tolerance in Saccharomyces cerevisiae 290
14.3 Engineering of Substrate Utilization in Saccharomyces cerevisiae 291
14.4 Engineering Tolerance Against Inhibitors, Temperature, and Solvents 293
14.5 Future Perspectives and Conclusions 295
Acknowledgments 296
References 297
15 Fermentative Production of Beta-Glucan: Properties and Potential Applications 303
Rafael Rodrigues Philippini, Sabrina Evelin Martiniano, Julio Cesar dos Santos, Silvio Silverio da Silva, and Anuj Kumar Chandel
15.1 Introduction 303
15.2 Beta-Glucan Structure and Properties 304
15.3 Microorganisms: Assets in Beta-Glucan Production 307
15.4 Strain Improvement Methods for Beta-Glucan Production 308
15.5 Fermentation: Methods and New Formulations 308
15.5.1 Carbon Sources 310
15.5.2 Nitrogen Sources 310
15.5.3 Micronutrients, Additives, and Vitamins 310
15.5.4 pH, Temperature, and Fermentation Time 311
15.5.5 Fermentation Methods 311
15.6 Beta-Glucan Recovery Methods 312
15.7 Potential Applications of Beta-Glucan 312
15.7.1 Food Applications 312
15.7.2 Chemical Applications 313
15.7.3 Pharmaceutical Applications 314
15.7.4 Utilization of Agroindustrial Byproducts as Carbon and Nitrogen Sources 314
15.7.5 Future Commercial Prospects 315
15.8 Conclusions 315
Acknowledgment 315
References 316
16 Extremophiles for Hydrolytic Enzymes Productions: Biodiversity and Potential Biotechnological Applications 321
Divjot Kour, Kusam Lata Rana, Tanvir Kaur, Bhanumati Singh, Vinay Singh Chauhan, Ashok Kumar, Ali A. Rastegari, Neelam Yadav, Ajar Nath Yadav, and Vijai Kumar Gupta
16.1 Introduction 321
16.2 Enumeration and Characterization of Extremophiles 322
16.3 Biodiversity and Abundance of Extremophiles 325
16.4 Diversity of Extremozymes and Their Biotechnological Applications 333
16.4.1 Amylase 333
16.4.2 Proteases 337
16.4.3 Pectinase 337
16.4.4 Cellulase 339
16.4.5 Xylanases 340
16.4.6 Lipases 348
16.4.7 L-Glutaminase 350
16.4.8 β-Galactosidase 351
16.4.9 Tannases 352
16.4.10 Aminopeptidases 352
16.4.11 Polysaccharide Lyases 353
16.4.12 Phytases 354
16.5 Conclusion and Future Scope 355
Acknowledgment 355
References 356
17 Recent Development in Ferulic Acid Esterase for Industrial Production 373
Surabhi Singh, Om Prakash Dwivedi, and Shashank Mishra
17.1 Introduction 373
17.2 Microbial Production of Ferulic Acid Esterase 374
17.3 Microbial Assay for FAE Production 374
17.4 Worldwide Demand and Production of FAE 375
17.5 Process Optimization for FAE Production 375
17.6 Recent Development and Genetic Engineering for the Enhancement of FAE Production 378
17.7 Conclusion 379
References 379
18 Research and Production of Second-Generation Biofuels 383
H.L. Raghavendra, Shashank Mishra, Shivaleela P. Upashe, and Juliana F. Floriano
18.1 Introduction 383
18.1.1 Second-Generation Biofuels 384
18.1.2 Feedstocks for Biofuels 384
18.1.2.5 Energy Crops 386
18.1.3 Feedstocks for Biodiesel 386
18.1.4 Types of Second-Generation Biofuels 386
18.1.5 Research on Second-Generation Biofuels 389
18.1.6 Production of Second-Generation Biofuels 392
18.1.7 The Impact on the Environment During the Production of Second-Generation Biofuels 395
18.1.8 Conclusions 396
References 397
19 Research and Production of Third-Generation Biofuels 401
Saurabh Singh, Arthur P.A. Pereira, and Jay Prakash Verma
19.1 Introduction 401
19.2 Cultivation of Algal Cells 402
19.3 Strain Selection 404
19.4 Types of Micro-Algae Used to Produce Third-Generation Biofuels 405
19.5 Biomass Preparation for Third-Generation Biofuel 405
19.6 Photobioreactors 406
19.6.1 Open Ponds 406
19.6.2 Vertical Column Photobioreactors 407
19.6.3 Flat-Plate Photobioreactors 407
19.6.4 Tubular Photobioreactors 407
19.6.5 Internally Illuminated Photobioreactors 408
19.7 Production of Biofuels from Algal Cultures 408
19.7.1 Biochemical Conversion 408
19.7.2 Thermochemical Conversion 410
19.7.3 Chemical Conversion 410
19.8 Factors Governing the Production of Third-Generation Biofuels 411
19.9 Advantages of Third-Generation Biofuel Production 411
19.10 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 412
Acknowledgments 413
References 413
20 Bioethanol Production from Fruit and Vegetable Wastes 417
Meganathan Bhuvaneswari and Nallusamy Sivakumar
20.1 Introduction 417
20.2 Importance of Biofuels 418
20.3 Bioethanol as a Promising Biofuel 418
20.4 Bioethanol from Wastes 419
20.5 General Mechanism of Production of Bioethanol 420
20.6 Ethanol Production Using Fruit Wastes 420
20.6.1 Bioethanol from Banana Wastes 420
20.6.2 Bioethanol from Citrus Fruit Wastes 421
20.6.3 Bioethanol from Pineapple Wastes 422
20.6.4 Bioethanol from Pomegranate 422
20.6.5 Bioethanol from Mango Wastes 423
20.6.6 Bioethanol from Jackfruit Wastes 423
20.6.7 Bioethanol from Date Palm Fruit Wastes 423
20.6.8 Pistachio-Wastes as Potential Raw Material 423
20.6.9 Bioethanol from Other Fruit Wastes 424
20.7 Bioethanol from Vegetable Wastes 424
20.8 Conclusion 425
References 425
21 Bioprocessing of Cassava Stem to Bioethanol Using Soaking in Aqueous Ammonia Pretreatment 429
Ashokan Anushya, Moorthi Swathika, Selvaraju Sivamani, and Nallusamy Sivakumar
21.1 Introduction 429
21.2 Characterization of Cassava Stem 431
21.3 SAA Pretreatment of Cassava Stem 431
21.3.1 Effect of Temperature 432
21.3.2 Effect of Ammonia Concentration 434
21.3.3 Effect of SLR 434
21.4 Ethanol Fermentation 437
21.5 Conclusion 437
References 438
22 Bioprospecting of Microbes for Biohydrogen Production: Current Status and Future Challenges 443
Sunil Kumar, Sushma Sharma, Sapna Thakur, Tanuja Mishra, Puneet Negi, Shashank Mishra, Abd El-Latif Hesham, Ali A. Rastegari, Neelam Yadav, and Ajar Nath Yadav
22.1 Introduction 443
22.2 Biohydrogen Production Process 444
22.2.1 Photofermentation 444
22.2.2 Dark Fermentation 449
22.2.3 Biophotolysis 452
22.2.4 Microbial Electrolysis Cells 454
22.3 Molecular Aspects of Hydrogen Production 458
22.4 Biotechnological Tools Involved in the Process 459
22.5 Reactors for Biohydrogen Production 460
22.5.1 Tubular Reactor 460
22.5.2 Flat Panel Reactor 461
22.6 Scientific Advancements and Major Challenges in Biohydrogen Production Processes 461
22.7 Conclusions and Future Prospects 462
Acknowledgment 462
References 462
Index 473
