Acknowledgements | p. xi |
Introduction | p. 1 |
Patterns of Classification | p. 10 |
The scala naturae | p. 11 |
The Linnean hierarchy and the Tree of Porphyry | p. 16 |
Quinarian circles and family trees | p. 23 |
Grades, phenograms, and cladograms | p. 30 |
Conclusions | p. 38 |
Patterns of Phylogeny | p. 41 |
The scala naturae as phylogeny | p. 42 |
Family trees | p. 45 |
Stufenreihen and cladograms | p. 52 |
Reticulate phylogeny | p. 58 |
Conclusions | p. 59 |
Homology and the Evidence for Evolution | p. 62 |
Homology | p. 63 |
The classification of homology | p. 69 |
Vestigial organs | p. 79 |
Ontogeny and molecular biology | p. 82 |
Geological and Geographical Evidence | p. 85 |
The fossil record | p. 85 |
Fossils and transmutation | p. 91 |
Biogeography | p. 97 |
Conclusions | p. 106 |
Methods of Classification: The Development of Taxonomy | p. 109 |
The method of logical division | p. 109 |
Linnean taxonomy | p. 114 |
Post-Linnean taxonomy | p. 117 |
"Evolutionary classification" | p. 121 |
Conclusions: The historical basis of taxonomy | p. 130 |
Methods of Classification: Phenetics and Cladistics | p. 132 |
Phenetics | p. 132 |
Phenetic clustering | p. 144 |
Cladistics | p. 151 |
Cladistics and fossils | p. 158 |
Methods of Classification: the Current Debate | p. 169 |
"The transformation of cladistics" | p. 170 |
Out-groups or ontogeny | p. 181 |
Parsimony | p. 188 |
Classification and the Reconstruction of Phylogeny | p. 195 |
The reconstruction of phylogeny | p. 196 |
Molecular distance | p. 204 |
Sequence data | p. 212 |
Is Systematics Independent? | p. 225 |
Distances, parsimony, compatibility, or likelihood? | p. 226 |
The hierarchy | p. 237 |
Cladograms, trees, and scenarios | p. 244 |
Mechanisms of Evolution: Darwinism and Its Rivals | p. 248 |
Lamarck and "Lamarckism" | p. 250 |
Natural Selection: Darwin and Wallace | p. 254 |
Post-Origin theories | p. 262 |
Mechanisms of Evolution: the Synthetic Theory | p. 268 |
"The Modern Synthesis" | p. 270 |
Criticisms of the Synthetic Theory | p. 273 |
Developmental constraints and selection | p. 279 |
Macroevolution | p. 284 |
Conclusions: The Theory of Natural Selection | p. 294 |
Scientific Knowledge | p. 298 |
The problem of induction | p. 300 |
The hypothetico-deductive method | p. 304 |
"Popper and after" | p. 308 |
Normative, descriptive, sociological, or cognitive? | p. 317 |
Philosophy and Biology | p. 323 |
Biological generalisations | p. 326 |
The taxomatic statement | p. 330 |
What is being classified? | p. 333 |
The hierarchy again | p. 341 |
Propositions in biology | p. 345 |
Postscript | p. 347 |
References | p. 349 |
Author index | p. 387 |
Subject index | p. 395 |
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