Compendium of Practical Astronomy

of Volume 2.- 13 The Sun.- 13.1 Introduction.- 13.2 Observations of the Sun.- 13.2.1 Site Selection.- 13.2.2 Observing Conditions.- 13.2.3 Records.- 13.3 Sunspots.- 13.3.1 Development and Classification of Sunspots.- 13.3.2 Light Bridges.- 13.3.3 The Wilson Effect.- 13.3.4 Numerical Expression of Spot Activity.- 13.3.5 Sunspot Cycles.- 13.4 Photospheric Faculae.- 13.4.1 Structure and Appearance.- 13.4.2 Classification.- 13.4.3 Measurement of Faculae Activity.- 13.4.4 Polar Faculae.- 13.5 Chromospheric Faculae.- 13.6 Prominences and Filaments.- 13.6.1 Introduction.- 13.6.2 Prominences and Filaments.- 13.6.3 Classification and Types.- 13.6.4 Recording.- 13.6.5 Relative Numbers and Profile Areas of Prominences.- 13.6.6 Long-Term Observing Programs.- 13.6.7 Short-Term Observing Programs.- 13.7 Flares.- 13.7.1 Introduction.- 13.7.2 Classification.- 13.7.3 Recording of Data.- 13.7.4 Long-Term Observing Programs.- 13.7.5 Short-Term Observing Programs.- 13.8 Other Chromospheric Phenomena.- 13.9 Position Measurements of Solar Phenomena.- 13.9.1 Targets of Position Measurements.- 13.9.2 Heliographic Coordinates.- 13.9.3 Methods of Position Measurement.- 13.9.4 Calculation of Heliographic Positions.- 13.10 Solar Photography.- 13.10.1 Introduction.- 13.10.2 Suitability of Observing Instruments.- 13.10.3 Options for Light Reduction.- 13.10.4 The Most Suitable Camera.- 13.10.5 Comments on Photographic Materials.- 13.10.6 White-Light Photography.- 13.10.7 Photography in Narrow Spectral Ranges.- 13.10.8 Double Exposures as a Method of Measuring Positions.- 13.10.9 Observing Programs.- 13.11 Conclusion.- References.- 14 Observations of Total Solar Eclipses.- 14.1 Photography of the Solar Corona.- 14.1.1 The Coronal Continuum.- 14.1.2 The Structure of the Corona.- 14.1.3 Processing.- 14.1.4 Photography with the Telescope.- 14.1.5 Exposure Times.- 14.1.6 Amateur Photographs.- 14.2 Special Astronomical Programs.- 14.2.1 The Chromosphere.- 14.2.2 The Times of Contact.- 14.2.3 The Partial Phase.- 14.2.4 The Star Field.- 14.3 Special Terrestrial Programs.- 14.3.1 Brightness and Color of the Sky.- 14.3.2 Flying Shadows.- 14.3.3 Meteorological Observations.- 14.3.4 Biological Observations.- 14.3.5 The Ionosphere.- 14.4 The Observing Station.- 14.4.1 Devising the Program.- 14.4.2 Site Selection.- 14.4.3 Equipment.- References.- 15 The Moon.- 15.1 Problems and Ideas for Lunar Observations.- 15.1.1 The Moon as a Test Object for Telescopic Work.- 15.1.2 Previous Studies and Space Missions.- 15.2 Conditions of Visibility.- 15.2.1 The Phases of the Moon.- 15.2.2 The Terminator.- 15.2.3 Libration.- 15.2.4 The Lunar Coordinate Grid.- 15.3 Lunar Formations.- 15.3.1 Maria.- 15.3.2 Terrae.- 15.3.3 On the History of Lunar Nomenclature.- 15.4 Observational Projects.- 15.4.1 Visual Observations.- 15.4.2 Photographic Observations.- 15.4.3 Photoelectric Observations.- References.- 16 Lunar Eclipses.- 16.1 Introduction.- 16.2 The Origin and Frequency of Lunar Eclipses.- 16.2.1 Principles.- 16.2.2 Historical Studies and the Saros Cycle.- 16.2.3 Canons: Statistics of Eclipses.- 16.3 Theory and Prediction of Lunar Eclipses.- 16.3.1 Geometric Theory.- 16.3.2 Photometric Theory of Lunar Eclipses.- 16.3.3 Prediction of Lunar Eclipses.- 16.4 Enlargement of the Earth's Shadow.- 16.4.1 General Considerations.- 16.4.2 Determination of the Enlargement of the Shadow by the Observation of the Transit of Craters Through the Terminator.- 16.4.3 Reduction of Measurements to Determine the Enlargement of the Shadow.- 16.5 Photometry of Lunar Eclipses.- 16.5.1 Principles.- 16.5.2 Global Photometry.- 16.5.3 Detail Photometry of Individual Features on the Moon.- 16.5.4 Photography of the Eclipsed Moon.- 16.6 Scientific Conclusions from Photometric and Astrometric Results.- 16.6.1 Cloudiness at the Earth's Terminator.- 16.6.2 Volcanic Eruptions and Meteoric Dust.- 16.6.3 The Ozone Problem.- 16.6.4 The Solar Influence: Luminescence on the Moon.- References.- 17 Occultations of Stars by the Moon.- 17.1 The Moon as an Astronomical Clock.- 17.2 Predictions.- 17.3 Timing of the Contacts.- 17.4 Grazing Occultations.- 17.5 Occultations of Planets.- 17.6 Photoelectric Registration.- References.- 18 Artificial Earth Satellites.- 18.1 Introduction.- 18.1.1 The Population of Satellites in Space.- 18.1.2 International Designations.- 18.2 Satellite Orbits.- 18.2.1 Undisturbed Motion.- 18.2.2 Orbit Perturbations.- 18.2.3 Classes of Orbits.- 18.3 Conditions of Visibility.- 18.3.1 Influence of the Inclination.- 18.3.2 Accurate Predictions.- 18.3.3 Simplified Predictions.- 18.3.4 Geostationary Satellites.- 18.3.5 The Brightness Behavior of Satellites.- 18.4 Optical Observations.- 18.4.1 Accurate Positional Observations.- 18.4.2 Photographic Observations.- 18.4.3 Light Variations.- 18.4.4 Changes in Color.- 18.5 Professional Observing Techniques.- 18.5.1 Photographic Techniques.- 18.5.2 Laser Techniques.- 18.5.3 Radar.- References.- 19 Observations of the Planets.- 19.1 The Purpose of and Tasks for Planetary Observations.- 19.1.1 The Amateur Observer and the Planets.- 19.1.2 Observational Tasks.- 19.2 Observing Equipment.- 19.2.1 The Telescope.- 19.2.2 Accessories.- 19.3 Visibility of the Planets.- 19.3.1 Apparent Diameter, Phase, and Oblateness.- 19.3.2 Atmospheric and Environmental Influences.- 19.3.3 Personal Qualities.- 19.4 The Representation of Planetary Observations.- 19.4.1 Drawings.- 19.4.2 Photographs.- 19.4.3 Maps and Planispheres.- 19.5 The Planets.- 19.5.1 Mercury.- 19.5.2 Venus.- 19.5.3 Mars.- 19.5.4 Minor Planets (Asteroids).- 19.5.5 Jupiter.- 19.5.6 Saturn.- 19.5.7 Uranus.- 19.5.8 Neptune.- 19.5.9 Pluto.- References.- 20 Comets.- 20.1 The Nature of Comets.- 20.2 Searching for Comets.- 20.3 Determining the Positions.- 20.3.1 Visual Observations.- 20.3.2 Photographic Observations.- 20.4 Studies of Structure.- 20.4.1 Visual Studies.- 20.4.2 Photographic Studies.- 20.5 Special Techniques.- 20.5.1 Photometry.- 20.5.2 Polarimetry.- 20.5.3 Spectroscopy.- References.- 21 Meteors and Bolides.- 21.1 General Information on Meteors.- 21.2 Methods of Meteor Observation.- 21.2.1 Visual Observations.- 21.2.2 Photographic Observations.- 21.2.3 Radio Astronomical Observations.- 21.2.4 Observation by Television.- 21.3 Special Aspects of Observations.- 21.3.1 Meteors.- 21.3.2 Bolides.- 21.4 Orbit Determinations of Meteoroids.- 21.4.1 The Path Within the Atmosphere.- 21.4.2 The Orbit in Space.- References.- 22 Noctilucent Clouds, Polar Aurorae, and the Zodiacal Light.- 22.1 Noctilucent Clouds.- 22.1.1 Early Observations.- 22.1.2 Characteristic Features.- 22.1.3 Classification of Types.- 22.1.4 Visibility.- 22.1.5 Their Origin.- 22.1.6 The Larger Picture.- 22.1.7 Future Observations.- 22.1.8 Comment on the Literature.- 22.2 Aurorae.- 22.2.1 Explanation.- 22.2.2 Apparent Shapes.- 22.2.3 Spectrum, Color, and Brightness.- 22.2.4 Observability.- 22.2.5 The Auroral Oval and the Geometry of the Magnetosphere.- 22.2.6 Origin.- 22.2.7 Accompanying Phenomena.- 22.2.8 Photographs.- 22.2.9 Comment on the Literature.- 22.3 The Zodiacal Light.- 22.3.1 The Brightness Distribution.- 22.3.2 The Spatial Distribution of the Interplanetary Dust Cloud.- 22.3.3 Properties of Interplanetary Dust Particles.- 22.3.4 Lifetime.- 22.3.5 The Origin of the Zodiacal Light.- 22.3.6 Comment on the Literature.- References.- 23 The Terrestrial Atmosphere and its Effects on Astronomical Observations.- 23.1 General Remarks on the Atmosphere.- 23.2 Weather-Dependent Phenomena.- 23.2.1 Assessment of Weather Patterns.- 23.2.2 Atmospheric Turbulence and Scintillation.- 23.2.3 Halos, Rainbows, and Other Optical Phenomena.- 23.3 Permanent Atmospheric Phenomena.- 23.3.1 Refraction.- 23.3.2 Extinction.- 23.3.3 Twilight.- 23.3.4 The Brightness of the Night Sky.- 23.3.5 The Polarization of Sky Light.- 23.3.6 The Apparent Shape of the Celestial Sphere.- 23.4 Site Selection for Astronomical Observations.- References.- Supplemental Reading List for Vol.2.