Contribution of Clusters Physics to Materials Science and Technology

Properties of Clusters in the Gas Phase.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Cluster production.- 3. Mass spectrometrie detection.- 4. Experiments on clusters in the gas phase.- 5. Laser spectroscopy of free clusters.- 6. Future developments.- Metal Cluster Beams and Electron Diffraction: Deviations from the Bulk States of Matter.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The cluster nucleation process.- 3. Cluster beams.- 4. Cluster electron diffraction.- 5. Metal cluster results.- Generation of Beams of Refractory Metal Clusters.- An Introduction to the Field of Catalysis by Molecular Clusters.- 1. An introduction to molecular clusters.- 1.1 Definition.- 1.2 Bonding in molecular clusters.- 1.3 Dynamic behaviour of molecular clusters.- 1.4 Reactivity of molecular clusters.- 1.5 Molecular clusters as structural models of intermediates or chemisorbed species in surface science.- 2. Catalysis by molecular clusters.- 2.1 The relationship between molecular clusters and small metal particles.- 2.2 Homogeneous cluster catalyzed reactions.- 2.3 Catalysis by supported molecular clusters.- 2.4 Supported clusters and heterogeneous catalysis: surface organometallic chemistry.- Quantum Chemistry for Metal Clusters.- 1. Generalities - cluster science.- 2. Quantum chemical methods.- 3. Comparisons of Hartree-Fock with X? (LSD) results.- 4. Electronic and magnetic structure of transition metal clusters.- 5. Concluding remarks - need for experiments on isolated clusters.- Electronic Structure of Metal Clusters.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Results.- 2.1 General considerations.- 2.2 Computational approaches.- 2.3 Geometry.- 2.4 Charge separation.- 2.5 Odd-even effects.- 2.6 Ionization potential.- 2.7 Density of states.- 2.8 Substrate effects.- 3. Experimental results.- Characterization of Supported Metal Particles in Heterogeneous Catalysts: I. Studies of high surface area materials.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Strategies for characterization of metal particles on on high surface area supports.- 3. X-ray diffraction and scattering.- 4. Extended X-ray absorption fine structure.- 5. Mossbauer spectroscopy.- 6. Magnetic susceptibility.- 7. Ferromagnetic resonance.- 8. Vibrational spectroscopy.- Characterization of Supported Metal Particles in Heterogeneous Catalysts: II. Studies of low surface area, model materials.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Strategies for characterization of metal particles on low surface area, model supports.- 3. Experimental techniques.- 4. Applications of studies using model supported metal samples.- 5. Concluding remarks.- Peculiar Aspects of Heterogeneous Nucleation and Growth Processes Related to Metal Supported Catalyst.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Kevnotes for heterogeneous nucleation.- 3. Mass transfer mechanisms.- 4. Epitaxy post nucleation phenomenon.- 5. Miscellaneous.- Formation, Action, and Properties of Clusters in the Photographic Process.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Basic principles of the photographic process.- 2.1 General description.- 2.2 Crystallography of the silver halides.- 2.3 The photographic process.- 2.4 Development.- 3. Theory of the photographic process.- 3.1 Experimental frame of the theories.- 3.2 Atomistic theories of the photographic process.- 3.3 The photographic process as an event of phase formation.- 4. Outlook.- Formation of Clusters in Bulk Materials.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Metal-excess alkali halides.- 3. Experimental methods for the study of colloids.- 4. Nucleation of colloids from F centres.- 5. Growth of colloids.- 6. Particle coarsening.- 7. Formation of clusters by irradiation.- 8. Summary.- Optical Properties of Small Particles in Insulating Matrices.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Optical material properties of small particles.- 2.1 Material functions of the bulk like matter.- 2.2 Material functions of small particles.- 2.3 Material functions of solid-state-clusters.- 3. Optical extinction and dispersion of one particle.- 3.1 Quasi-static case (ellipsoidal particles).- 3.2 General case (spherical particles).- 3.3 Physics behind the resonances.- 3.4 Volume plasmons in spherical metal particles.- 3.5. Optical properties of particles of various shapes.- 3.6. Summary of optical single particle polarizabilities.- 4. Optical properties of systems of many particles.- 4.1 Size distribution.- 4.2 Shape and orientation distribution.- 4.3 Multiple extinction effects.- 4.4 Interaction among particles.- 4.5 Summary.- to Percolation Theory.- 1. Two examples.- 2. Formal definition - Site percolation - Bond percolation.- 3. Definition and behaviour of the characteristic quantities.- 4. Thermodynamic analogy.- 5. Scaling laws.- 6. Exact results.- 7. Approximate results.- 8. The exponent of the conductivity.- 9. Percolation and macroscopic random media.- Electronic and Transport Properties of Granular Materials.- I. Effective medium theories of transport in inhomogeneous materials.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Effective medium theory for random resistor networks.- 3. The multiple scattering formalism.- 4. The hierarchy of effective medium approximations.- 5. EMA for continuous random systems.- 6. Effects of spatial correlation.- 7. EMA for other physical properties.- II. Specific inhomogeneous materials Morrel H. Cohen.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Macroscopically inhomogeneous materials.- 3. Microscopically inhomogeneous materials.- 4. Local electronic properties.- 5. The inhomogeneous metal-nonmetal transition.- 6. Porous media.- III. The origins of clustering Morrel H. Cohen.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Density fluctuations in expanded liquid Hg.- 3. Concentration fluctuations in metal-ammonia solutions.- 4. Valence fluctuations in Te, Se and SeTe alloys.- 5. Density fluctuations as clustering in glasses.- Optical Properties and Solar Selectivity of Metal-Insulator Composites.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Effective medium theories.- 3. Bounds on the effective dielectric permeability.- 4. Size limits for validity of effective medium theories.- 5. Case study one: optical properties and solar selectivity of coevaporated Co-Al2O3 films.- 6. Case study two: electrolytically coloured anodic Co-Al2O3 coatings.- 7. Summary and remarks.- Adhesion and Sintering of Small Particles.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Production of particles.- 3. General observations.- 4. Dynamics aspects of contact.- 5. Other aspects of adhesion.- 6. Sintering of small particles.- 7. Conclusion.- Physics on the Beach or the Theory of Windsurfing.