Data Requirements for Integrated Urban Water Management

List of Figures xix List of Tables xxiv List of Abbreviations and Acronyms xxvi Glossary xxix List of Contributors xxxiv Acknowledgements xxxv 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.1.1 Background and context 1 1.1.2 Objectives and scope 2 1.1.3 Why is an integrated data collection approach needed? 3 1.2 Overview of integrated urban water systems 3 1.2.1 IUWM concepts 3 1.2.2 Urban water system components 5 1.2.3 Variations in urban water systems world wide 11 1.2.4 Different data applications 12 1.3 Relationship to other guidelines 12 1.4 Relationship with other UNESCO IHP projects 14 1.5 References 15 PART I Guiding principles for data acquisition management and use 2 Overview of guiding principles 21 2.1 Introduction 21 2.2 Principles 21 2.2.1 Integration as an overarching principle 21 2.2.2 Defining the objectives of monitoring 22 2.2.3 Identifying the variables to monitor 22 2.2.4 Considering spatial and temporal scale effects 22 2.2.5 Assessing and managing uncertainty 22 2.2.6 Selecting monitoring equipment 23 2.2.7 Validating the data 23 2.2.8 Data handling and storage 24 2.2.9 Using data to develop information and knowledge 24 2.2.10 Budgeting and financial and considerations 25 2.2.11 Social and institutional considerations 25 2.3 Summary of principles 27 3 Defining objectives and applications of monitoring 29 3.1 Introduction 29 3.2 Defining the objectives 29 3.3 Applications of monitoring: integrating across functional responsibilities 32 3.4 References 36 4 Selecting variables to monitor 37 4.1 Introduction 37 4.2 Site characteristics 37 4.3 Infrastructure characteristics 38 4.4 Urban meteorology 39 4.5 Water quantity 39 4.6 Water quality 40 4.7 Water bodies and aquatic ecosystem health 40 4.8 Socio-economic indicators 41 4.9 References 43 5 Spatial and temporal scale consideration 45 5.1 Introduction 45 5.2 Temporal and spatial representativeness of samples and data 46 5.2.1 Temporal variability 47 5.2.2 Spatial variability 60 5.3 Conclusions 62 5.4 References 62 6 Understanding and managing uncertainty 65 6.1 Introduction 65 6.2 Uncertainty analysis concepts, approaches and terminology 67 6.2.1 Uncertainty analysis concepts 67 6.2.2 Overview of Relevant uncertainty analysis approaches 68 6.2.3 Terminology 70 6.3 Uncertainty analysis implementation 72 6.3.1 The measurement process 73 6.3.2 Type A evaluation of standard uncertainty 74 6.3.3 Type B evaluation of standard uncertainty 75 6.3.4 Determining the combined standard uncertainty 75 6.3.5 Determining expanded uncertainty 76 6.3.6 Calibration 77 6.4 Implementation examples 78 6.4.1 Example 1: Calibration of a water level piezoresistive sensor 78 6.4.2 Example 2: Uncertainty in discharge measurement 84 6.4.3 Example 3: Uncertainty in turbidity measurement 86 6.5 Recommendations for uncertainty analysis implementation 87 6.6 Uncertainty analysis and the decision-making process 88 6.7 References 89 Chapter 7 Selecting monitoring equipment 91 7.1 Introduction 91 7.2 Definition of terms and historical overview 91 7.3 Modern monitoring equipment 92 7.3.1 Sensor characteristics important for equipment selection 93 7.3.2 Criteria for the selection of monitoring equipment 95 7.4 Specific considerations for data integration within IUWM 100 7.5 Specific considerations for developing countries 100 7.6 References 101 8 Data validation: principles and implementation 103 8.1 Introduction 103 8.2 Basic principles of data validation 104 8.3 Validation methods 107 8.4 Local level validation 107 8.4.1 OTHU context and objectives 108 8.4.2 Statistical and signal processing methods 108 8.4.3 Data validation methods used in urban hydrology 108 8.4.4 Development of an automatic pre-validation method 109 8.4.5 Validation criteria 109 8.4.6 Pre-validation assessment 117 8.4.7 Examples of application 118 8.5 Global level validation 122 8.6 Data validation and performance indicators 123 8.7 Validation of external laboratory analysis 124 8.8 References 124 9 Data handling and storage 127 9.1 Introduction 127 9.2 Historical overview 127 9.3 Data flow and databases 128 9.4 Inputs to and outputs from the main database 130 9.5 Integration of databases 133 9.6 Considerations for database usage within an IUWM framework 134 9.7 References 137 10 Use of data to create information and knowledge 139 10.1 Introduction 139 10.2 Definition of terms 139 10.3 From data to information 141 10.3.1 Geographic information systems 143 10.3.2 Statistical analysis 144 10.3.3 Simulation models 145 10.3.4 Data mining 147 10.3.5 Self-organizing maps 150 10.3.6 Internet and grid systems 150 10.3.7 Object orientation 152 10.4 From information to knowledge 154 10.4.1 Resolving data bottlenecks 154 10.4.2 Knowledge application 155 10.5 References 156 11 Social and institutional considerations 159 11.1 Introduction 159 11.2 The importance of social and institutional factors 160 11.3 Key principles 161 11.3.1 Leadership and commitment 161 11.3.2 Public participation 164 11.3.3 Transparency and accountability 165 11.3.4 Coordinated data access and sharing 166 11.3.5 Evaluation and action learning 167 11.4 References 168 12 Financial considerations 171 12.1 Introduction 171 12.2 Principles for balancing financial constraints and data requirements 171 12.3 Strategies for maximizing data value with limited resources 173 12.3.1 Interrogation of existing data sources 173 12.3.2 New technologies 173 12.3.3 Sharing of monitoring networks 174 12.3.4 Integration of monitoring and models 174 12.3.5 Composite sampling 174 12.4 References 174 PART II Consideration and integration of specific urban water cycle components 13 Monitoring to understand urban water cycle interactions 177 13.1 Introduction 177 13.2 Monitoring urban water cycle interactions 186 14 Urban meteorology 187 14.1 Introduction 187 14.2 Interactions with the urban water cycle 187 14.3 Climate cycles and variability 189 14.4 Meteorological variables and data sources 190 14.4.1 Key variables 190 14.4.2 Meteorological data sources 190 14.5 Considerations for the collection and use of meteorological data 190 14.5.1 Spatial scales 190 14.5.2 Temporal scales 192 14.5.3 Climate change and its implications 193 14.6 References 194 15 Water supply 197 15.1 Introduction 197 15.2 Interaction with other urban water system components 198 15.3 Specific requirements within water supply subsystems 198 15.3.1 Water intake 200 15.3.2 Conveyance of untreated and clean water 201 15.3.3 Water treatment and water quality conditioning 203 15.3.4 Reservoirs 204 15.3.5 Distribution networks 204 15.3.6 Consumers 207 15.4 The role of measurement 207 15.4.1 Measurement for selling water 208 15.4.2 Calculating the water balance 208 15.4.3 Process and water quality control 210 15.4.4 Diagnostic measurements 210 15.5 References 213 16 Wastewater 215 16.1 Introduction 215 16.2 Interactions with other urban water cycle components 216 16.2.1 Water supply 216 16.2.2 Combined sewer systems and storm sewer systems 216 16.3 Monitoring requirements 218 16.3.1 Parameters to monitor 218 16.3.2 Quantifying sewer leakage 219 16.3.3 Detecting cross-connections 220 16.3.4 Measuring impacts on receiving water 220 16.4 References 222 17 Stormwater 225 17.1 Introduction 225 17.2 Interactions with other urban water cycle components 226 17.3 Monitoring requirements 266 17.3.1 Catchment characteristics 226 17.3.2 Drainage and treatment network 229 17.3.3 Urban meteorology 230 17.3.4 Monitoring the spatial and temporal distribution of precipitation 230 17.3.5 Temporal distribution of precipitation monitoring 230 17.4 Stormwater quantity 231 17.4.1 Measurements within the drainage system 232 17.4.2 Measurements within the catchment 233 17.4.3 Measurements within stormwater treatment systems 233 17.5 Stormwater quality 235 17.5.1 Monitoring water quality within the drainage network 236 17.5.2 Monitoring water quality within stormwater treatment systems 237 17.6 Stormwater impacts on aquatic ecosystem health 238 17.7 References 239 18 Combined sewers 243 18.1 Introduction 243 18.2 Interactions with other urban water cycle components 243 18.3 Monitoring requirements 243 18.4 References 249 19 Groundwater 251 19.1 Introduction 251 19.2 Interaction of urban groundwater with other urban water systems 251 19.3 Monitoring urban groundwater quantity and quality 254 19.4 Example of an integrated groundwater monitoring programme 256 19.5 References 258 20 Aquatic ecosystems 259 20.1 Introduction 259 20.2 Interactions with the urban water cycle components 260 20.3 Imperatives for aquatic ecosystem monitoring and management 261 20.4 Applications for data on aquatic ecosystems 261 20.4.1 Hydrologic and hydraulic stressors 261 20.4.2 Water quality stressors 263 20.4.3 Geomorphic stressors 263 20.4.4 Catchment-scale stressor indicators 264 20.4.5 Relative importance of stressors for different types of aquatic ecosystem 265 20.4.6 Additional data considerations for defining protection and rehabilitation strategies 266 20.5 Monitoring requirements 267 20.5.1 The 'why' 268 20.5.2 The 'what' 268 20.5.3 The 'where' 268 20.5.4 The 'when' 268 20.6 References 270 21 Human health 273 21.1 Introduction 273 21.2 Human health interactions within the urban water cycle 274 21.3 Monitoring requirements 276 21.3.1 Monitoring rationale 276 21.3.2 Selection of variables to monitor 277 21.3.3 Sampling schedules: location and frequency 278 21.3.4 Sampling methods and equipment 278 21.3.5 Data handling, interpretation and reporting 279 21.3.6 Quality control 279 21.3.7 Integration with other urban water monitoring programmes 279 21.4 References 280 22 Social and institutional components 281 22.1 Introduction 281 22.2 Interactions with other urban water cycle components 282 22.3 The importance of social and institutional data 283 22.4 Context mapping approach to collecting social and institutional data 284 22.4.1 The bio-physical profile 285 22.4.2 The social profile 285 22.4.3 The organizational profile 292 22.5 References 299 PART III Case studies Introduction 301 23 The OTHU Case study: integrated monitoring of stormwater in Lyon, France 303 23.1 Introduction 303 23.2 Description of the Django Reinhardt facility and its environment 304 23.2.1 Catchment and drainage system 304 23.2.2 Soil and alluvial aquifer characteristics 306 23.3 Monitoring system 307 23.3.1 Monitoring climate 307 23.3.2 Monitoring of inlet discharges and pollutant loads in both basins 307 23.3.3 Monitoring of settling processes 309 23.3.4 Monitoring the non-saturated zone 310 23.4 Groundwater monitoring 310 23.5 Conclusion 312 23.6 References 313 24 Wireless sensor network for monitoring a large-scale infrastructure system in Boston, USA 315 24.1 Introduction 315 24.1.1 Overview of Wireless Sensor Networks 315 24.1.2 Application potential 316 24.1.3 Conventional data acquisition systems 316 24.1.4 Innovative solutions based on Wireless Network Sensors 317 24.2 Project rationale and objectives 318 24.2.1 Rationale 318 24.2.2 Objectives 319 24.3 Components of the Boston Wireless Network System 319 24.3.1 Hydraulic and water quality monitoring 319 24.3.2 Remote acoustic leak detection 321 24.3.3 Monitoring combined sewer overflows 323 24.4 Wireless Monitoring System: system architecture 324 24.4.1 Tier I: sensor nodes 325 24.4.2 Tier II: data gatherers and gateway 327 24.5 Deployment of the system 327 24.5.1 Installation 327 24.5.2 Performance 330 24.6 Conclusions 332 24.7 References 332