List of Figures | p. xiii |
List of Tables | p. xv |
Acknowledgments | p. xvii |
About the Editors | p. xix |
Workshop Participants | p. xxi |
Introduction | p. 1 |
Background | p. 1 |
Workshop Objectives and Topics | p. 2 |
References | p. 4 |
Setting Environmental Standards within a Socioeconomic Context | p. 5 |
Introduction | p. 5 |
Social and Economic Context | p. 5 |
Economic Analysis | p. 5 |
Social Aspects of Standard Setting | p. 6 |
Typological Issues in Understanding Standards | p. 6 |
Introduction | p. 6 |
Why Does Terminology Matter? | p. 7 |
Why Are Different Types of Standards Necessary? | p. 8 |
Standards for Different Purposes | p. 8 |
Selecting the Right Standard for the Job | p. 8 |
Framework for Deriving a New Standard | p. 11 |
Problem Formulation | p. 12 |
Why Is a Standard Needed? | p. 13 |
Who Needs to Be Involved? | p. 13 |
Constraints | p. 15 |
Social and Economic Questions | p. 16 |
Stakeholder Analyses | p. 17 |
Check Rejection Criteria | p. 17 |
Developing a Specification | p. 18 |
Scope | p. 19 |
Form of the Standard | p. 19 |
Monitoring | p. 20 |
Consideration of Costs and Benefits | p. 21 |
Deriving a Standard | p. 22 |
Integrating Scientific, Social, and Economic Factors | p. 23 |
Understanding the Relationship between Exposure and Effects | p. 23 |
Implementation of Standards | p. 25 |
Meeting a Standard | p. 26 |
Allowing Flexibility | p. 26 |
Taking Socioeconomic Factors into Account | p. 27 |
Importance of Feedback | p. 28 |
Some Final Thoughts | p. 28 |
References | p. 29 |
How Should an Environmental Standard Be Implemented? | p. 31 |
Introduction | p. 31 |
Types and Uses of Standards | p. 31 |
Essential Features that Allow Implementation of a Standard | p. 36 |
Using Standards to Guide Decision Making | p. 36 |
Absolute Limits versus Ideal Standards | p. 36 |
ôIdeal Standardö | p. 37 |
Compliance Issues | p. 38 |
Application of Ideal Standards to Other Media | p. 41 |
Other Implementation Issues | p. 43 |
Geographical Scope of Standards | p. 43 |
Background Levels | p. 43 |
Forcing Technological Innovation | p. 44 |
Verification and Review of Standards | p. 44 |
Implementation Analysis Report | p. 45 |
Notes | p. 46 |
References | p. 46 |
Water and Sediment EQS Derivation and Application | p. 47 |
Introduction | p. 47 |
Specification and Recording of EQS Derivation Procedures | p. 50 |
Selection and Evaluation of Data for Deriving Water and Sediment EQSs | p. 51 |
Selection and Prioritization of Substances for EQS Setting | p. 51 |
Types of Data | p. 51 |
Species Selection | p. 51 |
Test Endpoints | p. 51 |
Algal Tests | p. 54 |
Sediment-Dwelling Organisms | p. 55 |
Data Validity | p. 55 |
Data Requirements of Different EQS Assessment Methods | p. 55 |
Use of Toxic Body Burdens for Assessing Sediment Toxicity | p. 61 |
Derivation of EQSs | p. 61 |
Available Methods | p. 61 |
Standard Test Species Approach | p. 62 |
Species Sensitivity Distributions | p. 64 |
Predictions from Model Ecosystem (Microcosm and Mesocosm) Data | p. 66 |
Selection of the Most Appropriate PNEC or EQS Derivation Method | p. 67 |
Corrections for Bioavailability | p. 67 |
Short- (MAC) and Long-Term (AA) EQSs and Implications of Exceedance | p. 68 |
Marine and Freshwater EQS Derivation | p. 69 |
Need for Separate Marine and Freshwater Standards | p. 69 |
Marine Toxicity Data Requirements | p. 72 |
Substitution of Freshwater for Marine Data (and Vice Versa) | p. 72 |
Use of Microcosm, Mesocosm, and Field Data | p. 72 |
Introduction to Microcosm and Mesocosm Tests | p. 72 |
Use of Microcosm, Mesocosm, and Field Studies for EQS Setting | p. 73 |
Use of Existing Studies | p. 73 |
Use of New Microcosm and Mesocosm Studies | p. 74 |
Calculated Estimates of Toxicity | p. 74 |
Metals | p. 76 |
Identifying Background Concentrations | p. 76 |
Modifying Metal EQSs to Account for Background | p. 78 |
Other Substances | p. 78 |
Protection of the Human and Wildlife Food Chains from Aquatic Contaminants | p. 79 |
Protection of the Food Chain - Humans and Wildlife | p. 79 |
Humans | p. 79 |
Wildlife | p. 80 |
Protection of Drinking Water | p. 81 |
Protection of Recreational Water | p. 81 |
Consideration of Carcinogenicity, Mutagenicity, and Reproductive Toxicity, Including Endocrine Disruption | p. 82 |
Background to Carcinogenicity, Mutagenicity, and Reproductive Toxicity | p. 82 |
Carcinogens, Mutagens, and Aquatic Organisms | p. 83 |
Population Perspective | p. 83 |
Deriving PNECs for Genotoxins | p. 83 |
Genotoxicity Assessment Methods | p. 84 |
Reproductive Toxins, Endocrine Disrupters, and Aquatic Organisms | p. 84 |
Population Perspective | p. 84 |
Reproductive Toxicity and PNEC Derivation | p. 84 |
Reproductive and Sexual Development Toxicity Assessment Tools | p. 85 |
Validation, Implementation, and Review of Aquatic EQSs | p. 87 |
Validation of Aquatic EQSs | p. 87 |
Validation of Correct Derivation | p. 87 |
Validation of EQS in the Field | p. 87 |
Validation Procedures | p. 88 |
Use of Microcosm, Mesocosm, and Field Studies for Validation Purposes | p. 89 |
Criteria for Triggering a Review of an Established EQS | p. 90 |
Conclusions | p. 92 |
Recommendations | p. 94 |
Notes | p. 95 |
References | p. 95 |
Derivation and Use of Environmental Quality and Human Health Standards for Chemical Substances in Groundwater and Soil | p. 105 |
Introduction and Scope | p. 105 |
Starting Point for the Development of a Terrestrial or Groundwater Standard | p. 106 |
Further Considerations in Soil Quality Standard Setting | p. 109 |
Prioritization | p. 109 |
Exposure Models - Use in Standard Setting | p. 110 |
Ecological Endpoints | p. 113 |
Relevance and Reliability of Data | p. 114 |
Selection of Data prior to Standard Setting for Data-Rich Substances | p. 114 |
Use of Surrogate Data for Data-Poor Substances | p. 115 |
Assessment Factors - Extrapolation and Soil Quality Standard Derivation | p. 115 |
Availability and Bioavailability | p. 117 |
Ecological Risk Assessment | p. 117 |
Human Health Risk Assessment | p. 118 |
Groundwater | p. 119 |
Background Concentrations | p. 119 |
Added Soil Quality Standard Approach | p. 120 |
Refinement of the Total Soil Quality Standard Approach | p. 121 |
SSD Approach | p. 121 |
Correcting the Quality Standard for Differences in Chemical Availability | p. 122 |
Correcting the Quality Standard for Differences in Bioavailability | p. 122 |
Verification of the Standard | p. 122 |
How to Validate? | p. 123 |
Conclusions | p. 124 |
Note | p. 125 |
References | p. 125 |
Workshop Conclusions and Recommendations | p. 127 |
Index | p. 133 |
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