Introduction and Overview | |
Introduction | p. 1 |
WEEE - The Scale of the Problem | p. 4 |
Legislative Influences on Electronics Recycling | p. 4 |
Producer Responsibility Legislation | p. 4 |
The WEEE Directive | p. 6 |
The RoHS Directive | p. 7 |
Other Examples of Legislation | p. 8 |
Treatment Options for WEEE | p. 10 |
Material Composition of WEEE | p. 11 |
Socio-economic Factors | p. 13 |
Logistics of WEEE | p. 15 |
WEEE - the International Perspective | p. 18 |
European Perspective | p. 18 |
Japan | p. 20 |
Barriers to Recycling of WEEE | p. 24 |
The Recycling Hierarchy and Markets for Recyclate | p. 25 |
WEEE Health and Safety Implications | p. 30 |
Future Factors That May Influence Electronic Waste Management | p. 35 |
Summary and Conclusions | p. 37 |
References and Further Reading | p. 37 |
Materials Used in Manufacturing Electrical and Electronic Products | |
Perspective | p. 40 |
Impact of Legislation on Materials Used in Electronics | p. 40 |
Overview | p. 40 |
The RoHS Directive and Proscribed Materials | p. 42 |
Where do RoHS Proscribed Materials Occur? | p. 44 |
Lead | p. 44 |
Brominated Flame Retardants | p. 44 |
Cadmium, Mercury and Hexavalent Chromium | p. 45 |
Soldering and the Move to Lead-free Assembly | p. 46 |
Introduction | p. 46 |
Lead-free Solder Choices | p. 46 |
Printed Circuit Board Materials | p. 47 |
Introduction | p. 47 |
PCB Materials | p. 48 |
Provision of Flame Retardancy in PCBs | p. 50 |
Non-ferrous and Precious Metals | p. 52 |
Encapsulants of Electronic Components | p. 53 |
Indium Tin Oxide and LCD Screens | p. 54 |
Polymeric Materials in Enclosures, Casings and Panels | p. 55 |
Product-related Plastic Content | p. 55 |
WEEE Engineering Thermoplastics | p. 59 |
Polycarbonate (PC) | p. 59 |
ABS (Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene) | p. 61 |
High Impact Polystyrene (HIPS) | p. 62 |
Polyphenyleneoxide (PPO) | p. 62 |
PC/ABS Blends | p. 62 |
Flame Retardants in Engineering Thermoplastics | p. 63 |
Materials Composition of WEEE | p. 65 |
Introduction | p. 65 |
Mobile Phones | p. 66 |
Televisions | p. 68 |
Washing Machines | p. 71 |
Conclusions | p. 72 |
References | p. 73 |
Dumping, Burning and Landfill | |
Introduction | p. 75 |
England: Site Inputs 2002-2003 | p. 77 |
Waste Inputs to Different Management Options in 2005 | p. 77 |
Landfill | p. 77 |
Historical | p. 77 |
Pollution from Landfills | p. 79 |
Landfill Gas | p. 79 |
Leachate | p. 79 |
Landfill-site Construction | p. 80 |
Burning | p. 82 |
Historical | p. 82 |
Incineration | p. 82 |
Mass Burn | p. 82 |
Energy Recovery/Energy from Waste (EFW) | p. 83 |
Advanced Thermal Processing | p. 84 |
Pollution from Incineration | p. 85 |
Legislation Summary | p. 88 |
Current UK Legislation | p. 88 |
References | p. 89 |
Recycling and Recovery | |
Introduction | p. 91 |
Separation and Sorting | p. 92 |
Treatment | p. 92 |
Mixed WEEE | p. 93 |
Refrigeration Equipment | p. 95 |
Cathode Ray Tubes | p. 96 |
Individual Processes | p. 97 |
Outputs and Markets | p. 102 |
Metals | p. 103 |
Glass | p. 103 |
Plastics | p. 103 |
Emerging Technologies | p. 104 |
Separation | p. 104 |
Thermal Treatments | p. 105 |
Hydrometallurgical Extraction | p. 106 |
Sensing Technologies | p. 106 |
Plastics to Liquid Fuel | p. 107 |
Plastics Containing Brominated Flame Retardents | p. 107 |
Acknowledgements | p. 108 |
References | p. 108 |
Integrated Approach to e-Waste Recycling | |
Introduction | p. 111 |
Recycling and Recovery Technologies | p. 113 |
Sorting/Disassembly | p. 114 |
Crushing/Diminution | p. 115 |
Separation | p. 115 |
Emerging Recycling and Recovery Technologies | p. 117 |
Automated Disassembly | p. 117 |
Comminution | p. 117 |
Separation | p. 118 |
Thermal Treatments | p. 119 |
Hydrometallurgical Extraction | p. 119 |
Dry Capture Technologies | p. 119 |
Biotechnological Capture | p. 119 |
Sensing Technologies | p. 120 |
Design for Recycling and Inverse Manufacturing | p. 120 |
Printed Circuit Boards | p. 121 |
Overview | p. 121 |
Recycling | p. 124 |
Current Disposal Hierarchy | p. 126 |
Economics of Recycling | p. 127 |
Future Developments | p. 128 |
Characteristics of PCB Scrap | p. 129 |
Emerging Technologies | p. 132 |
Sector-based Eco-design | p. 141 |
Disassembly | p. 142 |
Fasteners | p. 143 |
RFIDs (Radio Frequency Identification Tags) | p. 145 |
Active Disassembly | p. 146 |
Design Methodology and Resource Efficiency | p. 147 |
Recycling | p. 147 |
Constraints on Materials Selection | p. 148 |
Eco-design Guidelines for Manufacturing | p. 150 |
References | p. 160 |
European Recycling Platform (ERP): a Pan-European Solution to WEEE Compliance | |
Brief Introduction to WEEE | p. 161 |
The WEEE Directive | p. 161 |
Producer Responsibility | p. 162 |
Household and Non-household WEEE | p. 162 |
Marking EEE Products | p. 163 |
WEEE Collection Points | p. 164 |
Product Categories and Waste Streams | p. 164 |
Producer Compliance Schemes | p. 164 |
Variations in National WEEE Laws | p. 164 |
Introduction to European Recycling Platform (ERP) | p. 165 |
European Recycling Platform | p. 165 |
Founder Members | p. 165 |
Timeline | p. 165 |
Founding Principles | p. 166 |
Structure | p. 166 |
Scope of services | p. 168 |
The Operational Model - General Contractor Approach | p. 168 |
Euro PLUS | p. 170 |
ERP in Operation | p. 170 |
Country Summaries | p. 170 |
Key Performance Indicators | p. 170 |
Members | p. 170 |
ERP - Beyond Compliance | p. 172 |
Implementation of Individual Producer Responsibility (IPR) | p. 172 |
ERP UK WEEE Survey | p. 173 |
Summary | p. 175 |
Key Achievements | p. 175 |
Final Thoughts: Interviews with Two Founding Members | p. 177 |
References | p. 179 |
Liquid Crystal Displays: from Devices to Recycling | |
Introduction | p. 180 |
Overview of Liquid Crystals | p. 183 |
Definition and Classification of Liquid Crystals | p. 184 |
Molecular and Chemical Architecture of Liquid Crystals | p. 185 |
The Mesophase: Types of Intermediate State of Matter | p. 186 |
Physical Properties of Liquid Crystals and Material Requirements | p. 188 |
Overview of Liquid Crystal Displays Based on Nematic Mesophase | p. 190 |
Basic LCD Operating Principles | p. 190 |
Types of Electro-optic LCD Devices | p. 191 |
LCD Manufacturing Process | p. 195 |
Environmental Legislation and Lifecycle Analysis | p. 197 |
The WEEE Directive and LCDs | p. 197 |
RoHS and REACH | p. 199 |
Far East Environmental Measures | p. 199 |
Lifecycle Analysis | p. 199 |
Potentially Hazardous Constituents: Toxicity of LCD Constituents | p. 201 |
Toxicity of Mercury and Backlighting | p. 201 |
Toxicity of Liquid-crystal Mixture | p. 203 |
Demanufacture and Recycling | p. 204 |
Future Outlook | p. 208 |
LCD Panels | p. 208 |
Smart Disassembly | p. 209 |
Legislation | p. 209 |
References | p. 209 |
The Role of Collective versus Individual Producer Responsibility in e-Waste Management: Key Learnings from Around the World | |
Introduction | p. 212 |
E-waste and Its Environmental Impacts | p. 212 |
Background to Producer Responsibility | p. 213 |
Defining Individual and Collective Producer Responsibility | p. 215 |
The WEEE Directive in Europe | p. 216 |
The WEEE Directive's Approach to Individual and Collective Producer Responsibility | p. 216 |
Implementation of Individual and Collective Producer Responsibility in the EU | p. 218 |
ICT Milieu, The Netherlands | p. 219 |
E-waste Laws and Voluntary Agreements in Other Countries | p. 220 |
Japanese Electronics Take-back Directive | p. 220 |
Product Take-back in the USA | p. 221 |
Product Stewardship in Australia | p. 222 |
Discussion | p. 223 |
Competition in E-Waste Management | p. 223 |
Collective Producer Responsibility: Benefits and Disadvantages | p. 225 |
Individual Producer Responsibility: Benefits and Disadvantages | p. 225 |
Evaluating Collective versus Individual Producer Responsibility | p. 227 |
Recommendations to Implement IPR | p. 230 |
Recommendation #1: Ensure Article 8.2 of the WEEE Directive is Fully Transposed | p. 230 |
Recommendation #2: Adopt a Phased Approach to IPR | p. 231 |
Recommendation #3: Member States to Implement IPR | p. 232 |
Conclusions | p. 233 |
References | p. 234 |
Rapid Assessment of Electronics Enclosure Plastics | |
Introduction | p. 236 |
Instrumental Techniques | p. 237 |
Visible-NIR Spectroscopy of Engineering Thermoplastics | p. 239 |
Discrimination of Enclosure Materials | p. 241 |
Base Polymer Identification | p. 243 |
Selected Thermoplastics for Processing | p. 244 |
Controlled Degradation Experiments | p. 245 |
Analysis of Processed Thermoplastics | p. 245 |
Analysis of Plastics Containing Flame-retardant Additives | p. 248 |
Visible-NIR Spectroscopy | p. 249 |
X-Ray Fluorescence and Optical Emission Spectroscopy | p. 251 |
Infrared and Raman Spectroscopy | p. 253 |
Conclusions | p. 255 |
References | p. 256 |
Subject Index | p. 258 |
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