Eye Tracking Methodology

Part I Introduction to the Human Visual System (HVS).- 1 Visual Attention.- 1.1 Visual Attention: A Historical Review.- 1.1.1 Von Helmholtz's "Where".- 1.1.2 James' "What".- 1.1.3 Gibson's "How".- 1.1.4 Broadbent's "Selective Filter".- 1.1.5 Deutsch and Deutsch's "Importance Weightings".- 1.1.6 Yarbus and Noton and Stark's "Scanpaths".- 1.1.7 Posner's "Spotlight".- 1.1.8 Treisman's "Glue".- 1.1.9 Kosslyn's "Window".- 1.2 Visual Attention and Eye Movements.- 1.3 Summary and Further Reading.- 2 Neurological Substrate of the HVS.- 2.1 The Eye.- 2.2 The Retina.- 2.2.1 The Outer Layer.- 2.2.2 The Inner Nuclear Layer.- 2.2.3 The Ganglion Layer.- 2.3 The Optic Tract and M/P Visual Channels.- 2.4 The Occipital Cortex and Beyond.- 2.4.1 Motion-Sensitive Single-Cell Physiology.- 2.5 Summary and Further Reading.- 3 Visual Psychophysics.- 3.1 Spatial Vision.- 3.2 Temporal Vision.- 3.2.1 Perception of Motion in the Visual Periphery.- 3.2.2 Sensitivity to Direction of Motion in the Visual Periphery.- 3.3 Color Vision.- 3.4 Implications for Attentional Design of Visual Displays.- 3.5 Summary and Further Reading.- 4 Taxonomy and Models of Eye Movements.- 4.1 The Extraocular Muscles and the Oculomotor Plant.- 4.2 Saccades.- 4.3 Smooth Pursuits.- 4.4 Fixations (Microsaccades, Drift, and Tremor).- 4.5 Nystagmus.- 4.6 Implications for Eye Movement Analysis.- 4.7 Summary and Further Reading.-Part II Eye Tracking Systems.- 5 Eye Tracking Techniques.- 5.1 Electro-OculoGraphy (EOG).- 5.2 Scleral Contact Lens/Search Coil.- 5.3 Photo-OculoGraphy (POG) or Video-OculoGraphy (VOG).- 5.4 Video-Based Combined Pupil/Corneal Reflection.- 5.5 Classifying Eye Trackers in "Mocap" Terminology.- 5.6 Summary and Further Reading.- 6 Head-Mounted System Hardware Installation.- 6.1 Integration Issues and Requirements.- 6.2 System Installation.- 6.3 Lessons Learned from the Installation at Clemson.- 6.4 Summary and Further Reading.- 7 Head-Mounted System Software Development.- 7.1 Mapping Eye Tracker Screen Coordinates.- 7.1.1 Mapping Screen Coordinates to the 3D Viewing Frustum.- 7.1.2 Mapping Screen Coordinates to the 2D Image.- 7.1.3 Measuring Eye Tracker Screen Coordinate Extents.- 7.2 Mapping Flock Of Birds Tracker Coordinates.- 7.2.1 Obtaining the Transformed View Vector.- 7.2.2 Obtaining the Transformed Up Vector.- 7.2.3 Transforming an Arbitrary Vector.- 7.3 3D Gaze Point Calculation.- 7.3.1 Parametric Ray Representation of Gaze Direction.- 7.4 Virtual Gaze Intersection Point Coordinates.- 7.4.1 Ray/Plane Intersection.- 7.4.2 Point-In-Polygon Problem.- 7.5 Data Representation and Storage.- 7.6 Summary and Further Reading.- 8 Head-Mounted System Calibration.- 8.1 Software Implementation.- 8.2 Ancillary Calibration Procedures.- 8.2.1 Internal 2D Calibration.- 8.2.2 Internal 3D Calibration.- 8.3 Summary and Further Reading.- 9 Table-Mounted System Hardware Installation.- 9.1 Integration Issues and Requirements.- 9.2 System Installation.- 9.3 Lessons Learned from the Installation at Clemson.- 9.4 Summary and Further Reading.- 10 Table-Mounted System Software Development.- 10.1 Linux Tobii Client Application Program Interface.- 10.1.1 Tet Init.- 10.1.2 Tet Connect, Tet Disconnect.- 10.1.3 Tet Start, Tet Stop.- 10.1.4 Tet CalibClear, Tet CalibLoadFromFile, Tet CalibSaveToFile, Tet CalibAddPoint, Tet CalibRemovePoints, Tet CalibGetResult, Tet CalibCalculateAndSet.- 10.1.5 Tet SynchronizeTime, Tet PerformSystemCheck.- 10.1.6 Tet GetSerialNumber, Tet GetLastError, Tet GetLastErrorAsText.- 10.1.7 Tet CallbackFunction.- 10.2 A Simple OpenGL/GLUT GUI Example.- 10.3 Caveats.- 10.4 Summary and Further Reading.- 11 Table-Mounted System Calibration.- 11.1 Software Implementation.- 11.2 Summary and Further Reading.- 12 Using an Open Source Application Program Interface.- 12.1 API Implementation and XML Format.- 12.2 Client/Server Communication.- 12.3 Server Configuration.- 12.4 API Extensions.- 12.5 Interactive Client Example using Python.- 12.5.1 Using Gazepoint's Built-in Calibration.- 12.5.2 Using Gazepoint's Custom Calibration Capabilities.- 12.6 Summary and Further Reading.- 13 Eye Movement Analysis.- 13.1 Signal Denoising.- 13.2 Dwell-Time Fixation Detection.- 13.3 Velocity-Based Saccade Detection.- 13.4 Eye Movement Analysis in Three Dimensions.- 13.4.1 Parameter Estimation.- 13.4.2 Fixation Grouping.- 13.4.3 Eye Movement Data Mirroring.- 13.5 Summary and Further Reading.- 14 Advanced Eye Movement Analysis.- 14.1 Signal Denoising.- 14.2 Velocity-Based Saccade Detection.- 14.3 Microsaccade Detection.- 14.4 Validation: Computing Accuracy, Precision, and Refitting.- 14.5 Binocular Eye Movement Analysis: Vergence.- 14.6 Ambient/Focal Eye Movement Analysis.- 14.7 Transition Entropy Analysis.- 14.8 Spatial Distribution Analysis.- 14.9 Summary and Further Reading.- 15 The Gaze Analytics Pipeline.- 15.1 Gaze Analytics in Five Easy Steps.- 15.1.1 Step 0: Data Collection.- 15.1.2 Step 1 (dirs): Directory Creation.- 15.1.3 Step 2 (raw): Extract Raw Gaze Data.- 15.1.4 Step 3 (graph or process): Graph or Process Raw Data.- 15.1.5 Step 4 (collate): Collate Data Prior to Statistical Analysis.- 15.1.6 Step 5 (stats): Perform Statistical Analyses.- 15.2 Gaze Analytics: A Worked Example.- 15.2.1 Scanpath Visualization.- 15.2.2 Traditional Eye Movement Metrics.- 15.2.3 Advanced Eye Movement Analysis.- 15.3 Summary and Further Reading.- 16 Eye Movement Synthesis.- 16.1 Procedural Simulation of Eye Movements.- 16.1.1 Modeling Saccades.- 16.1.2 Modeling Fixations.- 16.2 Adding Synthetic Eye Tracking Noise.- 16.3 Summary and Further Reading.- Part III Eye Tracking Methodology.- 17 Experimental Design.- 17.1 Formulating a Hypothesis.- 17.2 Forms of Inquiry.- 17.2.1 Experiments Versus Observational Studies.- 17.2.2 Laboratory Versus Field Research.- 17.2.3 Idiographic Versus Nomothetic Research.- 17.2.4 Sample Population Versus Single-Case Experiment VersusCase Study.- 17.2.5 Within-Subjects Versus Between-Subjects.- 17.2.6 Example Designs.- 17.3 Measurement and Analysis.- 17.4 Summary and Further Reading.- 18 Suggested Empirical Guidelines.- 18.1 Evaluation Plan.- 18.1.1 Data Collection.- 18.1.2 System Identification.- 18.1.3 Constraints.- 18.1.4 User Selection.- 18.1.5 Evaluation Locale.- 18.1.6 Task Selection.- 18.2 Practical Advice.- 18.3 Considering Dynamic Stimulus.- 18.4 Summary and Further Reading.- 19 Case Studies.- 19.1 Head-Mounted VR Diagnostics: Visual Inspection.- 19.1.1 Case Study Notes.- 19.2 Head-Mounted VR Diagnostics: 3D Maze Navigation.- 19.2.1 Case Study Notes.- 19.3 Desktop VR Diagnostics: Driving Simulator.- 19.3.1 Case Study Notes.- 19.4 Desktop Diagnostics: Usability.- 19.4.1 Case Study Notes.- 19.5 Desktop Interaction: Gaze-Contingent Fisheye Lens.- 19.5.1 Case Study Notes.- 19.6 Summary and Further Reading.- Part IV Eye Tracking Applications.- 20 Diversity and Types of Eye Tracking Applications.- 20.1 Summary and Further Reading.- 21 Neuroscience and Psychology.- 21.1 Neurophysiological Investigation of Illusory Contours.- 21.2 Attentional Neuroscience.- 21.3 Eye Movements and Brain Imaging.- 21.4 Reading.- 21.5 Scene Perception.- 21.5.1 Perception of Art.- 21.5.2 Perception of Film.- 1.6 Visual Search.- 21.6.1 Computational Models of Visual Search.- 1.7 Natural Tasks.- 21.8 Eye Movements in Other Information Processing Tasks.- 21.9 Summary and Further Reading.- 22 Industrial Engineering and Human Factors.- 22.1 Aviation.- 22.2 Driving.- 22.3 Visual Inspection.- 22.4 Summary and Further Reading.- 23 Marketing/Advertising.- 23.1 Copy Testing.- 23.2 Print Advertising.- 23.3 Ad Placement.- 23.4 Television Enhancements.- 23.5 Web Pages.- 23.6 Product Label Design.- 23.7 Summary and Further Reading.- 24 Computer Science.- 24.1 Human-Computer Interaction and Collaborative Systems.- 24.1.1 Classic Eye-Based Interaction.- 24.1.2 Cognitive Modeling.- 24.1.3 Universal Accessibility.- 24.1.4 Indirect Eye-Based Interaction.- 24.1.5 Attentive User Interfaces (AUIs).- 24.1.6 Usability.- 24.1.7 Collaborative Systems.- 24.2 Gaze-Contingent Displays.- 24.2.1 Screen-Based Displays.- 24.2.2 Model-Based Graphical Displays.- 24.3 Summary and Further Reading.- 25 Conclusion.- References.- Index