Introduction xxvii
Assessment Test xxxii
Chapter 1 History of Fiber Optics and Broadband Access 1
Evolution of Light in Communication 2
Early Forms of Light Communication 2
The Quest for Data Transmission 3
Evolution of Optical Fiber Manufacturing Technology 4
Controlling the Course of Light 4
Extending Fiber’s Reach 6
Evolution of Optical Fiber Integration and Application 7
Broadband since the Turn of the Century 8
The Role of Fiber Optics in Broadband 9
Broadband Speed and Access at the Turn of the Century and Today 9
Summary 10
Exam Essentials 11
Review Questions 12
Chapter Exercises 13
Recognize the Refraction of Light 13
Identify Total Internal Reflection 13
Detect Crosstalk between Multiple Optical Fibers 14
Recognize Attenuation in an Optical Fiber 14
Chapter 2 Principles of Fiber-Optic Transmission 15
The Fiber-Optic Link 16
Transmitter 17
Receiver 17
Optical Fibers 18
Connectors 18
Decibels (dB) 19
Calculating dB Power Loss and Power Gain 20
Expressing dB in Percentages 21
The Rules of Thumb 24
Absolute Power 25
Summary 28
Exam Essentials 28
Review Questions 29
Chapter Exercises 31
Calculate the Decibel Value of a Gain or Loss in Power 31
Calculate the Gain or Loss in Power from a Known Decibel Value 31
Calculate the Gain or Loss in Power Using the dB Rules of Thumb 31
Convert dBm to a Power Measurement 32
Convert a Power Measurement to dBm 32
Chapter 3 Basic Principles of Light 33
Light as Electromagnetic Energy 34
Wavelength and Frequency 35
Characteristics of Electromagnetic Radiation 37
The Electromagnetic Spectrum 38
Refraction 41
What Causes Refraction? 42
Calculating the Index of Refraction 44
Total Internal Reflection 45
Fresnel Reflections 48
Summary 49
Exam Essentials 50
Review Questions 51
Chapter Exercises 54
Convert Various Wavelengths to Corresponding Frequencies 54
Convert Various Frequencies to Corresponding Wavelengths 54
Calculate the Amount of Energy in a Photon Using Planck’s Constant 54
Calculate the Speed of Light through a Transparent Medium Using Its Refractive Index 54
Use Snell’s Law to Calculate the Critical Angle of Incidence 55
Calculate the Loss in Decibels from a Fresnel Reflection 55
Chapter 4 Optical Fiber Construction and Theory 57
Optical Fiber Components 58
Core 59
Cladding 59
Coating 60
Standards 61
Materials 62
Tensile Strength 65
Manufacturing Optical Fiber 65
Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition (MCVD) 67
Outside Vapor Deposition (OVD) 68
Vapor Axial Deposition (VAD) 68
Plasma Chemical Vapor Deposition (PCVD) 68
Mode 69
Calculating the Numerical Aperture and Modes 70
Refractive Index Profiles 71
Summary 75
Exam Essentials 76
Review Questions 77
Chapter Exercises 80
Select the Proper Optical Fiber Coating for a Harsh Environment 80
Identify an Industry Standard that Defines the Specific Performance Characteristics on an Optical Fiber 80
Identify an Optical Fiber from Its Refractive Index Profile 80
Calculate the Numerical Aperture of an Optical Fiber 81
Calculate the Number of Modes in an Optical Fiber 81
Chapter 5 Optical Fiber Characteristics 83
It All Adds Up 85
Dispersion 86
Modal Dispersion 87
Material Dispersion 88
Waveguide Dispersion 89
Chromatic Dispersion 89
Polarization-Mode Dispersion 93
How Dispersion Affects Bandwidth 94
Attenuation 95
Absorption 96
Scattering 97
Total Attenuation 97
Bending Losses 98
Microbends 99
Macrobends 99
Numerical Aperture 102
Equilibrium Mode Distribution 104
Fiber Specifications and Standards 105
Revisions and Addendums 106
Mirroring of Performance Specifications 106
Premises Standards 107
Single-Mode ITU Standards 110
Multimode ITU and IEC Standards 116
Specialty Optical Fibers 117
Summary 118
Exam Essentials 118
Review Questions 119
Chapter Exercises 123
Calculate the Attenuation in dB for a Length of Optical Fiber 123
Calculate the Usable Bandwidth for a Length of Optical Fiber 123
Calculate the Total Macrobending Loss in a Single-Mode Fiber-Optic Cable 124
Calculate the Total Macrobending Loss in a Multimode Fiber-Optic Cable 124
Calculate the Acceptance Angle for an Optical Fiber 125
Determine the Latest Published Revision of a Standard Using the Internet 126
Chapter 6 Safety 127
Basic Safety 128
Engineering Controls 129
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) 129
Good Work Habits 130
Light Sources 130
Federal Regulations and International Standards 131
Laser Safety 137
Handling Fiber 137
Chemicals 139
Isopropyl Alcohol 139
Solvents 140
Anaerobic Epoxy 141
Site Safety 141
Electrical 141
Ladders 142
Trenches 143
Emergencies 143
Injury 143
Chemical Exposure 143
Fire 144
Summary 144
Exam Essentials 144
Review Questions 146
Chapter Exercises 148
Classify a Light Source Based on Optical Output Power and Wavelength 148
Identify the Symptoms of Exposure to Solvents 148
Calculate the Proper Distance the Base of a Ladder Should Be from a Wall 148
Chapter 7 Fiber-Optic Cables 149
Basic Cable 151
Cable Components 153
Buffer 153
Strength Members 157
Jacket 158
Cable Types 161
Cordage 161
Distribution Cable 162
Breakout Cable 163
Armored Cable 163
Messenger Cable 164
Ribbon Cable 166
Submarine Cable 166
Aerospace Cable 168
Hybrid Cable 170
Composite Cable 170
Cable Duty Specifications 171
Cable Termination Methods 172
Fanout Kit 172
Breakout Kit 172
Blown Fiber 174
NEC Provisions for Fiber-Optic Cables and Raceways 174
NEC Fiber-Optic Cable Types 175
Cable Markings and Codes 178
External Markings 178
Color Codes 179
Cable Numbers 181
Sequential Markings 182
Bend Radius Specifications 183
Summary 183
Exam Essentials 183
Review Questions 185
Chapter Exercises 189
Determine the Cable Type from the NEC Markings 189
Identify the Fiber Number from the Color Code 189
Determine the Fiber Number from the Cable Markings 190
Identify the Optical Fiber Type from the Color Code 190
Determine the Optical Fiber Type from the Cable Markings 191
Determine the Cable Length Using Sequential Markings 191
Chapter 8 Splicing 193
Why Splice? 194
Splice Performance 194
Intrinsic Factors 195
Extrinsic Factors 200
Splicing Safety 203
Splicing Hazards 203
Splicing Equipment 208
Cleaning Materials 208
Cleavers 211
Mechanical Splice 214
Fusion Splice 216
Splicing Procedures 220
Mechanical Splicing Procedure 220
Fusion Splicing Procedure 225
Splice Performance Requirements 236
Summary 238
Exam Essentials 238
Review Questions 239
Chapter Exercises 241
Determine if the Splice Loss Is from an Intrinsic Factor 241
Determine if the Splice Loss Is from an Extrinsic Factor 241
Calculate the Potential Splice Loss from a Core Diameter Mismatch 241
Troubleshoot a Fusion Splice 242
Chapter 9 Connectors 243
The Fiber-Optic Connector 245
Ferrule 246
Cap 247
Strain Relief 249
Body 251
Connection Performance 253
Intrinsic Factors 253
Extrinsic Factors 255
Geometry 256
Interferometer 259
Connector Types 267
Single-Fiber Contact Connectors 267
Single-Fiber Noncontact Connectors 271
Multiple-Fiber Contact Connectors 272
Connector Termination 281
Tools 282
Epoxy 292
Abrasives 293
Hand Polishing 295
Assembling the Connector 295
Machine Polishing 300
Pre-polished Connectors 300
Cleaning and Inspection 305
Endface Cleaning 305
Endface Inspection 314
Connector Performance 325
Connector Color Code 325
Summary 326
Exam Essentials 326
Review Questions 328
Chapter Exercises 332
Evaluate Connector Endface Polishing 332
Evaluate Connector Endface Cleaning 332
Evaluate Connector Endface Geometry 334
Identify an Optical Fiber Type from the Color of the Connector Strain Relief 334
Chapter 10 Fiber-Optic Light Sources and Transmitters 335
Semiconductor Light Sources 336
LED Sources 337
Laser Sources 338
Light Source Performance Characteristics 339
Output Pattern 339
Source Wavelengths 343
Source Spectral Output 345
Source Output Power 347
Source Modulation Speed 348
Transmitter Performance Characteristics 348
LED Transmitter Performance Characteristics 349
LED Transmitter Applications 352
Laser Transmitter Performance Characteristics 353
Laser Transmitter Applications 358
Higher Power Transmitters 362
Light Source Safety 363
Classifications 363
Safe Handling Precautions 364
Summary 364
Exam Essentials 365
Review Questions 366
Chapter Exercises 369
Determine the Minimum Optical Output Power for an LED Transmitter 369
Determine the Maximum Optical Output Power for an LED Transmitter 370
Determine the Minimum Optical Output Power for a Laser Transmitter 371
Determine the Maximum Optical Output Power for a Laser Transmitter 372
Chapter 11 Fiber-Optic Detectors and Receivers 373
Photodiode Fundamentals 374
Other Types of Photodiode 375
PIN Photodiode 376
Avalanche Photodiode 376
Photodiode Responsivity, Efficiency, and Speed 377
Responsivity 377
Quantum Efficiency 377
Switching Speed 378
Fiber-Optic Receiver 378
Receptacle 379
Optical Subassembly 379
Electrical Subassembly 379
Receiver Optical Performance Characteristics 381
Dynamic Range 381
Operating Wavelength 381
Optical Attenuators 381
Types of Attenuators 382
Calculating the Attenuation Value 383
Summary 383
Exam Essentials 383
Review Questions 384
Chapter Exercises 385
Calculate the Dynamic Range for an LED Receiver 385
Calculate the Dynamic Range for a Laser Receiver 386
Chapter 12 Cable Installation and Hardware 387
Installation Specifications 389
Bend Radius 390
Tensile Rating 391
Installation Hardware 395
Pulling Eye 395
Pull Box 396
Splice Enclosures 397
Patch Panels 400
Installation Methods 404
Tray and Duct 404
Conduit 406
Direct Burial 408
Aerial 408
Blown Fiber 408
Wall Plate 411
Cable Slack 411
Fire Resistance Bonding and Grounding 412
Fire Resistance 412
Bonding and Grounding 414
Cable Types 414
Hardware Management 415
Cleanliness 415
Organization 415
Clamps and Cable Ties 416
Labeling Requirements and Documentation 417
Documentation 420
Polarity 421
Electrical Codes 424
The National Electrical Code (NEC) 424
The Canadian Electrical Code 425
The National Electrical Safety Code (NESC) 425
Summary 425
Exam Essentials 426
Review Questions 427
Chapter Exercises 430
Determine the Minimum Cable Bend Radius 430
Determine the Maximum Cable Tensile Rating 430
Determine the Fill Ratio for a Multiple-Cable Conduit Installation 431
Chapter 13 Fiber-Optic System Advantages 433
The Advantages of Optical Fiber over Copper 434
Bandwidth 434
Attenuation 438
Electromagnetic Immunity 442
Size and Weight 443
Security 444
Safety 445
Summary 446
Exam Essentials 446
Review Questions 448
Chapter Exercises 449
Calculate the Bandwidth for a Length of Optical Fiber 449
Calculate the Attenuation for a Length of Optical Fiber 451
Chapter 14 Test Equipment and Link/Cable Testing 453
Calibration Requirements 454
Continuity Tester 455
Visual Fault Locator 459
Fiber Identifier 463
Inline Optical Power Monitoring 466
Inline Optical Power Monitor 467
Inline Network Sensors 468
Optical Return Loss Test Set 469
Stabilized Light Source and Optical Power Meter 470
Multimode OLTS 471
Single-Mode OLTS 474
Patch Cord 475
Test Jumper 475
Launch Conditions, Mode Filters, and Encircled Flux 477
ANSI/TIA-526-14 Optical Loss Measurement Methods 480
Method A, Two-Test Jumper Reference 482
Method B, One-Test Jumper Reference 483
Method C, Three-Test Jumper Reference 484
Patch Cord Optical Power Loss Measurement 485
Connector Insertion Loss Measurement 486
Link Segment and Cabling Subsystem Performance Measurements 487
Tier 1 Testing 488
Documentation of OLTS Testing 489
Tier 2 Testing 489
Optical Time-Domain Reflectometer 490
OTDR Theory 490
OTDR Display 494
OTDR Setup 496
Cable Plant Test Setup 499
Testing and Trace Analysis 502
Documentation of OTDR Testing 510
Emerging Testing Standards 511
Summary 512
Exam Essentials 512
Review Questions 514
Chapter Exercises 515
Perform Optical Loss Measurement Testing of a Cable Plant 515
Determine the Distance to a Break in the Optical Fiber with an OTDR 515
Measure the Loss of a Cable Segment with an OTDR 516
Measure the Loss of an Interconnection with an OTDR 517
Measure the Loss of a Fusion Splice or Macrobend with an OTDR 517
Appendix Answers to Review Questions 519
Chapter 1: History of Fiber-Optics and Broadband Access 520
Chapter 2: Principles of Fiber-Optic Transmission 520
Chapter 3: Basic Principles of Light 521
Chapter 4: Optical Fiber Construction and Theory 522
Chapter 5: Optical Fiber Characteristics 523
Chapter 6: Safety 525
Chapter 7: Fiber-Optic Cables 525
Chapter 8: Splicing 527
Chapter 9: Connectors 527
Chapter 10: Fiber-Optic Light Sources and Transmitters 529
Chapter 11: Fiber-Optic Detectors and Receivers 530
Chapter 12: Cable Installation and Hardware 531
Chapter 13: Fiber-Optic System Advantages 532
Chapter 14: Test Equipment and Link/Cable Testing 533
Glossary 535
Index 569
