Flame-Retardant Polymeric Materials

1 Structure, Pyrolysis, and Flammability of Cellulose.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Fine Structure of Cellulose.- 3. The Major Products of Cellulose Pyrolysis: Levoglucosan and Char.- 3.1. Levoglucosan Formation.- 3.2. Other Products.- 3.3. Char Formation.- 4. Vacuum Pyrolysis.- 4.1. Mechanism, Rates, and Products.- 4.2. Kinetics.- 4.3. Structural Changes.- 4.4. Thermal Analysis.- 5. Air Pyrolysis.- 5.1. General.- 5.2. Kinetics and Fine Structure.- 5.3. Levoglucosan Formation, Fine Structure, and Combustibility.- 6. Flame Retardancy.- 6.1. Mechanism and Flame-Retardant Structural Considerations.- 6.2. Flame Retardancy and Fine Structure of Cellulose.- 7. References.- 2 Synergism and Flame Retardancy.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Synergism.- 3. Synergistic Reactions in Fire Retardation.- 3.1. Antimony-Halogen Synergism.- 3.2. Phosphorus-Halogen Synergism.- 3.3. Nitrogen-Phosphorus Synergism.- 3.4. Synergism with Free-Radical Initiators.- 3.5. Synergism and Condensed Phase Reactions.- 4. Synergism and Future Studies on Fire Retardation.- 5. References.- 3 Ignition of Polymers.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Autoignition Studies.- 2.1. Experimental Technique.- 2.2. General Kinetic Model of the Ignition Process.- 2.3. Autoignition Data for Single-Component Systems.- 2.4. Effects of Selected Experimental Variables.- 3. Autoignition of Multicomponent Systems.- 3.1. Polymers with Flame-Retardant Additives.- 3.2. Multipolymer Systems.- 4. The State of the Art.- 5. References.- 4 Phosphorus-Based Flame Retardants.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Inorganic Phosphorus Compounds.- 2.1. Red Phosphorus.- 2.2. Ammonium Phosphates.- 2.3. Insoluble Ammonium Polyphosphate.- 2.4. Ammonia-P2O5 Products.- 2.5. Phosphoric-Acid-Based Systems for Cellulosics.- 3. Organic Phosphorus Flame Retardants-Additive Types.- 3.1. Alkyl Acid Phosphates.- 3.2. Trialkyl Phosphates.- 3.3. Dimethyl Methylphosphonate.- 3.4. Halogenated Alkyl Phosphates and Phosphonates.- 3.5. Oligomeric Halogen-Free Phosphorus Esters.- 3.6. Oligomeric Cyclic Phosphonate.- 3.7. Oligomeric Phenylphosphonates.- 3.8. Tricresyl Phosphates and Related Phosphates.- 3.9. Triphenyl Phosphate.- 3.10. Phosphonitrilics.- 3.11. Phosphonium Bromides.- 3.12. Phosphine Oxides.- 4. Organic Phosphorus Compounds-Reactive Types.- 4.1. Organophosphorus Monomers.- 4.2. Phosphorus-Containing Diols and Polyols.- 4.3. Reactive Organophosphorus Compounds in Textile Finishing.- 5. Mode of Action of Phosphorus Flame Retardants.- 5.1. Condensed Phase Mechanisms.- 5.2. Vapor Phase Mechanisms.- 6. Trends and Future Developments.- 7. References.- 5 Flammability of Cotton-Polyester Blend Fabrics.- 1. Theory of Flame-Retardant Action.- 2. Flame-Retardant Treatments for Polyester-Cotton Blends.- 3. References.- 6 Factors Affecting the Combustion of Polystyrene and Styrene.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Physical and Thermal Properties of Polystyrene and Styrene.- 3. The Pyrolysis and Combustion of Polystyrene and Styrene.- 3.1. The Pyrolysis and Combustion of Polymers.- 3.2. The Pyrolysis of Polystyrene.- 3.3. Inhibiting the Pyrolysis of Polystyrene.- 3.4. The Pyrolysis and Combustion of Polystyrene.- 3.5. The Pyrolysis amd Combustion of Styrene Monomer.- 4. The Mechanisms of Flame Retardation.- 4.1. Theories of Flame Retardancy.- 4.2. The Mechanisms of Halogen Flame Retardants.- 5. The Effects of Halogen Flame Retardants on the Combustion of Polystyrene and Styrene.- 6. The Role of Synergists in the Combustion of Styrenic Materials Inhibited by Halogen Compounds.- 7. The Use of Phosphorus Compounds as Flame Retardants for Polystyrene.- 8. Test Methods and Their Usefulness to Combustion Studies.- 9. Conclusions.- 10. References.- 7 Phenolic Fibers.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Preparation of Phenolic Fibers.- 2.1. Selection of Precursor Resin and Spinning Characteristics.- 2.2. Curing Process.- 2.3. Acetylation of Phenolic Fibers.- 3. Properties of Phenolic Fibers.- 3.1. Flame Resistance.- 3.2. Mechanical Properties.- 3.3. Processibility.- 4. Thermal and Chemical Resistance.- 5. Uses.- 5.1. Commercial Uses.- 5.2. Use of Phenolic Fibers as Precursor Fibers.- 6. References.- 8 Flame-Resistant Wool and Wool Blends.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Wool.- 3. Research Strategies for Flame-Resistant Wool.- 3.1. Historical.- 4. Flammability Test Methods.- 5. Inorganic Compounds.- 5.1. Sodium Hydrosulfite-Formaldehyde-Borax Treatment.- 5.2. Phosphoric, Sulfuric, and Sulfamic Acids and Their Salts.- 5.3. Tris(hydroxymethyl)phosphonium Derivatives.- 5.4. Zirconium and Titanium Compounds.- 5.5. Tungsten, Molybdenum, and Vanadium Compounds.- 5.6. Tin Compounds.- 6. Organic Compounds.- 6.1. Tetrabromophthalic Anhydride and Related Compounds.- 6.2. Iodinated Wool.- 6.3. Tris(2,3-dibromopropyl) Phosphate and Related Compounds.- 6.4. Vinyl Phosphonate Esters.- 6.5. Tris(1-aziridinyl) Phosphine Oxide.- 7. Mechanisms of Flame Retardation.- 8. Safety of Flame-Resistant Fabrics.- 9. References.- 9 Smoke and Tenability: A Perspective on the Materials Approach to the Fire Problem.- 1. Introduction: Combustion versus Fire.- 2. Fire: Ignition and Materials.- 3. Smoke: A Hazard Analysis.- 4. Smoke: The Measurement Problem.- 5. Correlation: Studies of Small- and Large-Scale Smoke Tests.- 6. Smoke Hazard Control: The Fire Detector Aspect.- 7. Smoke Hazard: The Materials Perspective.- 8. Smoke Hazard Assessment: Summary.- 9. References.