Global Environment

Preface to the Second Edition xiiiChapter 1. Introduction to the Global Environment:The Water and Energy Cycles and Atmospheric and Oceanic Circulation 1Introduction 1The Global Water Cycle 2Major Water Masses 2Fluxes between Reservoirs 2Geographic Variations in Precipitation and Evaporation 4The Energy Cycle 7Introduction 7Radiation and Energy Balance 7Variations in Solar Radiation: The Atmospheric and Oceanic Heat Engine 11Circulation of the Atmosphere 14Oceanic Circulation 16Introduction 16Wind-Driven (Shallow) Circulation 17Coastal Upwelling 19Thermohaline (Deep) Circulation 19Chapter 2. Air Chemistry: The Greenhouse Effect and the Ozone Hole 24Atmospheric Gases 24Carbon Dioxide 26Present and Future CO2 and the Surficial Carbon Cycle 26Past CO2 Levels 36Other Greenhouse Gases: Methane, Nitrous Oxide 39Other Greenhouse Gases: Halogens andTropospheric Ozone 46Radiative Forcing by Anthropogenic Factors 47Climatic Effects of Radiative Forcing: Climate Sensitivity, Global Warming, and Hydrologic Changes 48Observed Changes in Temperature and Atmospheric Circulation 50Observed Changes in the Water Cycle: Water Vapor, Precipitation, Streamflow, and Storms 52Observed Changes in Ice, Sea Level and the Oceans 54Predictions for Future Climate Change 57Aerosols 59Aerosol Cloud Effects 60Types of Aerosols 61Gaseous Emissions 62Sulfate Aerosols 62Black Carbon Aerosols 63Organic Carbon Aerosols 65Biomass Burning Aerosols 65Nitrate Aerosols 65Mineral Dust Aerosols 66Sea-Salt Aerosols 67Surface Dimming by Aerosols 68Aerosols and the Hydrologic Cycle 68Black Carbon Aerosols and Snow Cover 69Ozone and the Ozone Hole 69Stratospheric Ozone: The Ozone Hole 70Tropospheric Ozone: Air Pollution 76Chapter 3. Air Chemistry: Rainwater, Acid Rain, and the Atmospheric Cycles of Sulfur and Nitrogen 79Introduction 79Formation of Rain (and Snow) 80Water Vapor in the Atmosphere 80Condensation 83Sublimation 84Rain (and Snow) Formation 84Air Motion in Cloud Formation 85Chemical Composition of Rainwater: General Characteristics 85Cl-, Na+, Mg++, Ca++ and K+ in Rain 92Gases and Rain 102Sulfate in Rain: The Atmospheric Sulfur Cycle 102Sea-Salt Sulfate 103U.S. Sulfur Emissions 104Conversion of Sulfur Dioxide to Sulfate in Rain 107Biogenic Reduced Sulfur 108Other Sulfur Sources: Biomass Burning, Volcanism, and Soil Dust 109Sulfur Deposition on Land 110Anthropogenic Sulfur Deposition in the United States 111Atmospheric Sulfur Cycle: Human Perturbation 113Radiative Forcing from Sulfate Aerosol 115The Atmospheric Nitrogen Cycle and Nitrogen in Rain 116N2, Nitrogen Fixation, Denitrification, and Total Nitrogen Fluxes 116Nitrogen Cycle: Anthropogenic Changes and Climate 120Atmospheric Nox and Nitrate in Rain 120Nitrate in Rain: Anthropogenic Sources 123Nitrate Deposition in Rain and the Nitrate-Nitrogen Cycle 126Ammonium in Rain: Atmospheric Ammonium-Nitrogen Cycle 130Ammonium in Rain 133Reactive N Deposition 135Acid Rain 137The pH of Natural Rainwater 138Acid Rain from Pollution 140Acid Rain in Europe 141Acid Rain in the United States from 1955 to 1985 142Acid Deposition Changes in the United States from 1980 to 2007 144Acid Rain in Other Parts of the World 145Distinguishing Naturally Acid Rain from That Due to Pollution 146Effects of Acid Rain 149Chapter 4. Chemical Weathering: Minerals, Plants, and Water Chemistry 151Introduction 151Biogeochemical Cycling in Forests 153Soil Water and Microorganisms: Acid Production 158Chemical Weathering 159Minerals Involved in Weathering 159Silicate Weathering Reactions: Secondary Mineral Formation 162Mechanism of Silicate Dissolution 168Rate of Silicate Weathering 171Silicate Weathering: Soil Formation 176Carbonate Weathering 178Sulfide Weathering 179Groundwaters and Weathering 181Garrels's Model for the Composition of Groundwaters from Igneous rocks 182Chapter 5. Rivers 185Introduction 185Components of River Water 185River Runoff 186Major World Rivers 188Suspended Matter in Rivers 190Amount of Suspended Matter 190Human Influence 195Chemical Composition of Suspended Matter 198Chemical Composition of Rivers 201World Average River Water 201Chemical Classification of Rivers 202Relief and River-Water Composition 212Major Dissolved Components of River Water 213Chloride and Cyclic Salt 213Sodium 216Potassium 217Calcium and Magnesium 219Bicarbonate (HCO3) 220Silica 222Sulfate 227Sulfate Pollution and Acidic Rivers 229Organic Matter in Rivers: Organic Acidity 232Organic Acid Rivers 236Chemical and Total Denudation of the Continents as Deduced from River-Water Composition 237Nutrients in River Water 241Nitrogen in Rivers: The Terrestrial Nitrogen Cycle 242Reactive Nitrogen Deposition and River Transport in the United States 249Phosphorus In Rivers: The Terrestrial Phosphorus Cycle 250Chapter 6. Lakes 257Physical Processes in Lakes 257Water Balance 257Thermal Regimes and Lake Classification 259Lake Models 264Biological Processes in Lakes as They Affect Water Composition 269Photosynthesis, Respiration, and Biological Cycling 269Eutrophication 272Limiting Nutrients 275Sources of Phosphorus in Lakes 279Pollutive Changes in Major Lakes: Potential Loading 285Acid Lakes 287Changes in Acid Lakes in the Northeastern and Upper Midwestern United States 291Changes in Acid Lakes in Europe 292Naturally Acid Lakes 293Chemical Composition of Acid Lakes 294Saline and Alkaline Lakes 298Chapter 7. Marginal Marine Environments: Estuaries 303Introduction 303Estuaries: Circulation and Classification 303The Black Sea 307Estuarine Chemistry: Conservative vs NonconservativeMixing 308Estuarine Chemical Processes 311Inorganic (Nonbiogenic) Removal in Estuaries 311Biogenic Nutrients in Estuaries 314Limiting Nutrients: Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Silica 317Eutrophication from Nutrient Pollution of Estuaries 321Coastal Hypoxia from Nutrient Loading and Eutrophication 324Harmful Algal Blooms and Eutrophication 329Suspended Sediment Deposition in Marginal Marine Environments 330Antiestuaries and Evaporite Deposition 335Chapter 8. The Oceans 339Introduction 339Chemical Composition of Seawater 339pH and the Human Acidification of the Oceans 343Modeling Seawater Composition 344Sillen's Equilibrium Model 344Oceanic Box Models 345Continuum Models 347Energy Sources for Chemical Reactions 347Major Processes of Seawater Modification 348Biological Processes 349Volcanic-Seawater Reaction 360Interaction with Detrital Solids 365Chemical Budgets for Individual Elements 369Summary of Processes 369Chloride 370Sodium 371Sulfur 372Magnesium 374Potassium 375Calcium 376Bicarbonate 381Silica 382Phosphorus 384Nitrogen 386References 389Index 435