Preface | p. iii |
The Geohydroderm and Its Major Groundwater-Containing Geosystems | |
Water Propelled Geological Processes and Shaped the Landscapes of Our Planet | p. 2 |
Water--Earth's Sculptor | p. 2 |
Water--The Unique Fluid on Our Planet | p. 5 |
The Special Properties of Water that Are the Base of All the Phenomena Dealt with in this Book | p. 7 |
Key Roles of the Oceans in the Dynamics of the Global Water Cycle | p. 10 |
Fresh Water Erodes Mountains but Exists Thanks to Them | p. 11 |
Formation Water, Entrapped in Isolated Rock-Compartments, Has a Meteoric Isotopic Composition and an Imprint of Evaporitic Brines | p. 11 |
Location of Land and Sea Changed Constantly | p. 11 |
Petroleum Hydrology | p. 12 |
Earth Exhibits Rocks that Are Unique Resources of this Planet--Products of Water-Induced Processes | p. 13 |
The Dynamics of the Global Water Cycle Propelled Biological Evolution | p. 13 |
Summary Exercises | p. 15 |
Exploring and Understanding the Geohydroderm by Sequences of Observations and Conclusions | p. 16 |
Global Groundwater Research Within the Geohydroderm | p. 16 |
The Active Cycle of Fresh Surface Water and Unconfined Groundwater | p. 18 |
Interstitial Water Entrapped in Rocks Beneath the Vast Oceans | p. 24 |
Fossil Formation Waters Entrapped Within Sedimentary Basins and Rift Valleys | p. 27 |
Halite and Gypsum | p. 31 |
Shallow and Deep Groundwaters Are Indispensable Geological Records | p. 31 |
Brine-Spray-Tagged Meteoric Formation Water Is Also Common Within Crystalline Shields | p. 33 |
Petroleum Occurrence and Genesis | p. 35 |
Warm and Boiling Groundwaters | p. 37 |
Summary Exercises | p. 39 |
Basic Research Concepts, Aims and Queries, Tools, and Strategies | p. 41 |
Basic Research Concepts and Terms | p. 41 |
Research Aims and Queries | p. 44 |
The Research Tools | p. 53 |
Research Strategies | p. 61 |
Summary Exercises | p. 63 |
Shifting of Water and Salts Between Oceans and Continents | |
Shallow Cycling Groundwater, Its Tagging by Sea Spray, and the Underlying Zone of Static Groundwater | p. 66 |
Groundwater Facies of the Geohydroderm | p. 66 |
Sea Spray Salts Concentrated Along a Large River System--The Murray River Basin, Australia | p. 68 |
Sea Spray Salts Concentrated in a Closed Lake System Within an Arid Zone--Yalgorup National Park, Australia | p. 75 |
Sea Spray Salts Concentrated in Unconfined Groundwater--Campaspe River Basin, Australia | p. 76 |
Sea Spray-Tagged Fresh and Saline Groundwaters in the Unconfined Groundwater System at the Crystalline Shield of the Wheatbelt, Australia | p. 78 |
Sea Spray Versus Brine-Spray Tagging | p. 82 |
Sea-Derived Ions Serve as Benchmarks Identifying Water-Rock Interactions | p. 82 |
Gravitational Flow in the Unconfined Groundwater System and Static Water Storage Beneath | p. 83 |
Summary Exercises | p. 91 |
Interstitial Waters in Rock Strata Beneath the Oceans | p. 92 |
Extending Our Hydrological Curiosity to Beneath the Oceans | p. 92 |
The Deep Sea Drilling Project | p. 93 |
Water Content in Suboceanic Sediments | p. 93 |
The Widespread Marine Facies of Interstitial Water (Cl - 19 g/L, Cl/Br - 300, Diagenetic Changes Are Common) | p. 94 |
Continental Brine-Tagged Facies: Salinity Higher than Seawater Cl/Br 200 or Lower, Ca-Cl Present | p. 98 |
Information Retrievable from Below-Ocean Interstitial Waters | p. 108 |
Interstitial Water is Connate Water, Entrapped in Its Host Rocks Since the Initial Stage of Sedimentation | p. 111 |
Interstitial Waters Tagged by Brine-Spray Disclose that the History of the Mediterranean Sea Basin Included a Continental Stage | p. 111 |
Geological Evidence Proves that the Mediterranean Sea Underwent a Phase of Drying Up | p. 112 |
Summary Exercises | p. 113 |
Salt, Gypsum, and Clay Strata Within Sedimentary Basins Disclose Large-Scale Evaporitic Paleo-Landscapes | p. 115 |
Minerals Formed Along the Continuous Evaporation Path of Seawater and Notes on the Composition of the Residual Brines | p. 115 |
Formation of Halite and Gypsum Deposits Necessitated Evaporation of Tremendous Amounts of Seawater During Extended Time Intervals | p. 116 |
Evaporitic Paleo-Facies: Information Recorded by Associated Formation Waters | p. 117 |
The Permian "Saline Giant" of the Salado Formation--An Ancient Evaporitic Megasystem | p. 118 |
Evaporite Deposits Are Common in Sedimentary Basins | p. 119 |
Silurian Salt Deposits Were Not Dissolved by the Nearby Formation Water | p. 120 |
Recent Lowering of the Dead Sea Lowered the Coastal Groundwater Base Flow and Initiated Rapid Dissolution of a Buried 10,000-Year-Old Halite Bed | p. 121 |
The Many Preserved Salt Beds Manifest the Preservation of Connate Groundwaters | p. 122 |
Limestone-Clay Alterations Reflect Alternating Sea Transgressions and Regressions | p. 123 |
Summary Exercises | p. 123 |
Deep Groundwater Systems--Fossil Formation Waters | |
The Geosystem of the Fossil Brine-Tagged Meteoric Formation Waters | p. 126 |
Formation Waters Within Sedimentary Basins | p. 126 |
Formation Waters Within Rift Valleys | p. 140 |
Fossil Nonsaline Groundwaters Tagged by CaCl[subscript 2], Formed During the Messinian, at the Land Bordering the Dried-Up Mediterranean Sea | p. 149 |
Some Physical Aspects of Formation Waters | p. 151 |
The Fruitcake Structure of the Formation Waters and Petroleum-Containing Geosystem | p. 153 |
A Brief History of the Basic Concept of Connate Groundwater | p. 154 |
The Bottom Line: Brine-Spray-Tagged Formation Waters Provide Markers of Paleo-Landscapes, Water Age, and Paleoclimate | p. 155 |
Solving a Great Puzzle: Why Are Recent Groundwaters Sea Tagged and Commonly Rather Fresh, Whereas Formation Waters Are By and Large Saline and Brine Tagged? | p. 155 |
Summary Exercises | p. 157 |
Fossil Formation Waters Range in Age from Tens of Thousands to Hundreds of Millions of Years | p. 158 |
Confinement Ages of Connate Waters and Criteria to Check Them | p. 158 |
Isotopic Dating of Fossil Groundwaters | p. 158 |
Hydraulic Age Calculations--An Erroneous Approach to Confined Goundwaters, Which Are Static | p. 161 |
Radiogenic [superscript 40]Ar Dating | p. 163 |
Mixed Water Samples Are Commonly Encountered | p. 164 |
Isotopic Dating of Very Old Groundwaters | p. 166 |
Conclusions and Management Implications | p. 169 |
Summary Exercises | p. 170 |
Brine-Tagged Meteoric Formation Waters Are Also Common in Crystalline Shields: Geological Conclusions and Relevance to Nuclear Waste Repositories | p. 171 |
The Special Nature of Data Retrieved from Boreholes in Crystalline Rocks | p. 171 |
Observations Based on Data from the Fennoscandian and Canadian Shields and Deduced Boundary Conditions | p. 176 |
What Typifies Formation Waters Within Crystalline Rocks? | p. 190 |
Results from the KTB Deep Research Boreholes | p. 194 |
Isotopic Dating of the Fossil Groundwaters Within Shields | p. 196 |
Working Hypothesis: Tectonic "Fracture Pumps" Introduced Meteoric Groundwater to Great Depths | p. 200 |
The Saline Waters in Shields Serve as a Geological Record | p. 200 |
Nuclear Waste Disposal Implications | p. 201 |
Summary Exercises | p. 202 |
Petroleum Hydrology | |
Anatomy of Sedimentary Basins and Petroleum Fields Highlighted by Formation Waters | p. 205 |
Petroleum and Associated Formation Waters Are Complementing Sources of Information | p. 205 |
Petroleum-Associated Formation Waters in the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin | p. 206 |
Petroleum-Associated Formation Waters Within Ordovician Host Rocks, Ontario, Canada | p. 212 |
Kettleman Dome Formation Waters Associated with Petroleum--Key Observations and Concluded Boundary Conditions | p. 213 |
Shallow Formation Water and Petroleum in Devonian Rocks, Eastern Margin of the Michigan Basin | p. 217 |
Petroleum-Associated Brines in Paleozoic Sandstone, Eastern Ohio | p. 222 |
Formation Waters of the Mississippi Salt Dome Basin Disclose Detailed Stages of Petroleum Formation | p. 228 |
Norwegian Shelf: Petroleum-Associated Formation Waters, Upper Triassic to Upper Cretaceous | p. 235 |
Lithostratigraphic Controls of Compartmentalization Were Effective from the Initial Stage of Subsidence and Further Evolved Under Subsidence-Induced Compaction | p. 238 |
Summary Exercises | p. 239 |
Evolution of Sedimentary Basins and Petroleum Highlighted by the Facies of the Host Rocks and Coal | p. 240 |
Sediments Formed in Large-Scale Sea-Land Contact Zones | p. 240 |
Lithological Evidence of Subaerial Exposure Phases | p. 247 |
The Lithological Record of Inland Basins and Rift Valleys | p. 249 |
Rock-Compartment Structures and Their Evolution | p. 252 |
Compartmentalization Was Effective from the Initial Stage of Subsidence and Further Evolved Under Compaction | p. 253 |
Summary Exercises | p. 253 |
Petroleum and Coal Formation in Closed Compartments--The Pressure-Cooker Model | p. 255 |
Did Petroleum Migrate Tens and Even Hundreds of Kilometers? | p. 255 |
Coal--A Fossil Fuel Formed with No Migration Being Involved | p. 259 |
Boundary Conditions Set by Formation Waters and Petroleum and Coal Deposits | p. 262 |
The Pressure-Cooker Model of Petroleum Formation and Concentration Within Closed Compartments | p. 263 |
Another Case Study Supporting the Pressure-Cooker Model | p. 267 |
Pressure-Regulating Mechanisms Within Rock Sequences Discussed in Light of the Fruitcake Structure of Isolated Rock-Compartments | p. 268 |
Summary Exercises | p. 269 |
Hydrology of Warm Groundwater and Superheated Volcanic Systems | |
Mineral and Warm Waters: Genesis, Recreation Facilities, and Bottling | p. 271 |
The Anatomy of Warm Springs | p. 271 |
Medicinal and Healing Aspects of Warm and Mineral Waters | p. 286 |
Developing the Resource--The Hydrochemist's Tasks | p. 288 |
Local Exhibitions Disclosing the Anatomy of Warm and Mineral Water Sources and Their Properties | p. 289 |
Bottled "Mineral Water" | p. 290 |
Summary Exercises | p. 290 |
Water in Hydrothermal and Volcanic Systems | p. 292 |
Hydrothermal Systems | p. 292 |
Yellowstone National Park, Western United States | p. 293 |
Cerro Prieto, Northern Mexico | p. 304 |
The Wairakei, Tauhara, and Mokai Hydrothermal Region, New Zealand | p. 310 |
Noble Gases in a Section Across the Hydrothermal Field of Larderello, Italy | p. 314 |
Fumaroles of Vulcano, Aeolian Island, Italy | p. 319 |
The Hydrology and Geochemistry of Superheated Water in Hydrothermal and Volcanic Systems | p. 326 |
Summary Exercises | p. 327 |
Implementation, Research, and Education | |
Data Acquisition, Processing, Monitoring, and Banking | p. 329 |
Sample Collection and In Situ Measurements | p. 329 |
Checking the Laboratories' and Data Quality | p. 330 |
Types of Wells | p. 331 |
Multiparameter Studies | p. 332 |
Multisampling | p. 334 |
Monitoring Networks | p. 336 |
Effective Data Banks | p. 339 |
Summary Exercises | p. 340 |
Conclusions and Research Avenues | p. 341 |
Criteria to Check Working Hypotheses Related to Global Water Occurrences | p. 341 |
Geosystems that Host Fluid Water--Research Topics | p. 348 |
Geological Records--Research Avenues | p. 350 |
Summary Exercises | p. 352 |
Educational Aspects of Water, the Unique Fluid of Planet Earth | p. 354 |
List of Educational Topics | p. 355 |
National Water and Man Museums | p. 362 |
Local Exhibitions and Water and Man Demonstration Centers | p. 363 |
Educational Water Recreation Parks | p. 364 |
Spas | p. 364 |
Teaching at School and Student Mini-Research Projects | p. 364 |
Teaching at Universities | p. 365 |
Epilogue: Three Energy Sources and One Transporter--The Geo-Quartet Unique to Planet Earth | p. 367 |
Answers and Discussion of the Exercise Questions | p. 369 |
References | p. 381 |
Index | p. 391 |
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