Preface | p. xv |
Acknowledgments | p. xvii |
Introduction | p. 1 |
Fundamentals of Materials Evaluation and the Concept of Lifetime of Materials | p. 1 |
Effects of Different Forms of Energy on Materials | p. 1 |
Factors That Can Cause Failure of a Material | p. 2 |
Testing | p. 2 |
Macroexamination | p. 2 |
Microexamination (Micrographs) | p. 2 |
Comparison of Visual Inspection with Other Methods | p. 2 |
Unassisted Visual Inspection | p. 2 |
Assisted Visual Observation | p. 3 |
Various Methods in Materials Evaluation | p. 6 |
Concept for Nondestructive Evaluation | p. 7 |
Techniques for Nondestructive Assessment | p. 7 |
Major Methods | p. 7 |
Minor Methods | p. 7 |
Remedial Action | p. 8 |
Terminology | p. 8 |
Mechanical Properties of Materials | p. 11 |
Effects of Stress on a Material | p. 11 |
Mechanical Testing | p. 12 |
Destructive vs. Nondestructive Testing | p. 12 |
The Stress-Strain Curve | p. 12 |
Elastic Modulus | p. 14 |
Yield Strength | p. 14 |
Plastic Deformation | p. 14 |
Tensile Strength | p. 14 |
Ductility | p. 16 |
Toughness and Resilience | p. 16 |
Stress-Strain Relationships and Elastic Properties | p. 16 |
Longitudinal Stress and Strain: Young's Modulus | p. 17 |
Transverse Strain: Poisson's Ratio | p. 18 |
Shear Stress and Strain: Shear Modulus | p. 19 |
Volumetric Strain under Uniaxial Stress | p. 21 |
Volumetric Strain under Hydrostatic Stress | p. 21 |
Torsional Stress and Strain | p. 22 |
Hardness | p. 23 |
Brinell Hardness | p. 23 |
Vickers Hardness | p. 25 |
Rockwell Hardness | p. 25 |
Knoop Microhardness | p. 26 |
Relationship between Hardness and Other Mechanical Properties | p. 27 |
References | p. 29 |
Sound Waves: Acoustic and Ultrasonic Properties of Materials | p. 31 |
Vibrations and Waves | p. 31 |
The Wave Equation | p. 31 |
Wavelength and Frequency | p. 33 |
Relationship between Mechanical Properties and Wave Propagation | p. 33 |
Transverse Waves | p. 34 |
Longitudinal Waves | p. 35 |
Changes in Mechanical Properties | p. 37 |
Launching Waves in Materials | p. 38 |
Transducers | p. 38 |
Modes of Inspection: Pulse-Echo and Pitch-Catch | p. 38 |
Time of Flight: Thickness Determination | p. 40 |
Attenuation | p. 42 |
Notation for Attenuation and Amplification of Signals | p. 43 |
Acoustic Emission | p. 44 |
Laser Generation of Ultrasound | p. 44 |
References | p. 45 |
Thermal Properties of Materials | p. 47 |
Thermal Effects in Materials | p. 47 |
Thermal Capacity and Temperature Change | p. 47 |
Thermal Conduction | p. 48 |
Thermal Expansion | p. 50 |
Stress Due to Thermal Expansion | p. 51 |
Temperature Dependence of Materials Properties | p. 51 |
Ductile-to-Brittle Transition | p. 52 |
Effects of Heat on Structure of Materials | p. 53 |
Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth | p. 53 |
Effects of Annealing on Hardness and Ductility | p. 54 |
Creep | p. 56 |
References | p. 57 |
Electrical and Magnetic Properties of Materials | p. 59 |
Electrical Insulators | p. 59 |
Polarization | p. 59 |
Relation between Polarization and Field | p. 59 |
Surface Charge | p. 60 |
Values of Dielectric Coefficients | p. 61 |
Electrical Conductors | p. 61 |
Electric Current and Current Density | p. 62 |
Relationship between Current Density, Conductivity, and Electric Field | p. 62 |
Movement of Electrons in Conducting Materials | p. 62 |
Temperature Dependence of Resistivity | p. 64 |
Electrical Measurements for Materials Testing | p. 66 |
Generation of Eddy Currents | p. 66 |
Penetration of a Plane Electromagnetic Wave into a Material | p. 67 |
Skin Depth | p. 68 |
Electrical Parameters | p. 69 |
Relationship between Voltage and Current under AC Excitation | p. 70 |
Components of Impedance | p. 71 |
Magnetic Fields | p. 71 |
Magnetic Field H | p. 72 |
Magnetic Induction B | p. 72 |
Magnetic Fields in Various Configurations | p. 74 |
Three Simple Cases | p. 75 |
Leakage Flux in the Vicinity of Flaws | p. 76 |
References | p. 77 |
Effects of Radiation on Materials | p. 79 |
Basics of X-Rays | p. 79 |
Generation of X-Rays | p. 79 |
Typical X-Ray Spectrum | p. 79 |
Attenuation of Radiation | p. 80 |
Attenuation Coefficients | p. 81 |
Mass Attenuation Coefficient | p. 82 |
Composite Attenuation Coefficients | p. 82 |
Interaction of X-Rays with Materials | p. 84 |
Principal Interaction Processes | p. 84 |
Atomic Attenuation Coefficient | p. 85 |
Electronic Attenuation Coefficient | p. 86 |
Contributions to Attenuation | p. 86 |
Energy Dependence of Attenuation Coefficients | p. 86 |
Surface Analysis Using Radiative Methods | p. 89 |
X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) | p. 89 |
Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) | p. 90 |
Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES) | p. 91 |
X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) | p. 92 |
Exposure, Dose, and Dose Rate | p. 93 |
Reduction in Intensity of a Divergent Beam of Radiation | p. 93 |
Shielding of a Nondivergent Beam of Radiation | p. 93 |
Reduction in Intensity of a Divergent Beam with Shielding | p. 94 |
Dose | p. 94 |
Reduction of Exposure to Radiation and Dose Rate | p. 94 |
Measurement Units: Roentgen, Rad, and Rem | p. 95 |
Recommended Upper Limits for Radiation Dose | p. 96 |
References | p. 97 |
Mechanical Testing Methods | p. 99 |
Tensile Testing | p. 99 |
Stress-Strain Curve | p. 99 |
Engineering Stress vs. True Stress | p. 99 |
Nonlinear Behavior | p. 101 |
Hardness Tests | p. 102 |
Comparison of Hardness Tests and Conversion between Hardness Scales | p. 102 |
Relationship of Hardness to Other Mechanical Properties | p. 103 |
Variation of Indentation Area with Load: Reliability of Hardness Tests | p. 105 |
Cracks and Failure of Materials | p. 107 |
Cracks and Other Defects | p. 107 |
Crack Growth | p. 109 |
Fatigue | p. 109 |
Detection of Cracks Using Liquid Penetrants | p. 110 |
Other Methods for Surface Inspection | p. 114 |
Impact and Fracture Tests | p. 114 |
Fracture Toughness | p. 115 |
Relationship between Fracture Toughness and Charpy V Notch Test | p. 117 |
Temperature Dependence of Fracture Toughness | p. 118 |
References | p. 121 |
Ultrasonic Testing Methods | p. 123 |
Generation of Ultrasound in Materials | p. 123 |
Transducers | p. 123 |
Beam Divergence | p. 126 |
Distance-Amplitude Correction Curve | p. 126 |
Display and Interpretation of Ultrasonic Data | p. 131 |
Interpretation of Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo Signals | p. 133 |
Inhomogeneous and Layered Materials | p. 135 |
Transmission and Reflection at Interfaces | p. 136 |
Amplitude of Reflected Wave | p. 136 |
Energy Transfer and Conservation | p. 136 |
Dependence of Reflected Energy on Impedances | p. 138 |
Amplitude of Transmitted Wave | p. 138 |
Angle Beams and Guided Waves | p. 139 |
Mode Conversion | p. 140 |
Nonnormal Reflection | p. 140 |
Refraction | p. 141 |
Surface Acoustic Waves | p. 141 |
References | p. 144 |
Electrical Testing Methods | p. 147 |
Basics of Eddy Current Testing | p. 147 |
Eddy Current Inspection | p. 148 |
Impedance Plane Response | p. 149 |
Depth Dependence of Intensity of Eddy Currents | p. 150 |
Dependence of Penetration Depth on Materials Properties | p. 152 |
Eddy Current Sensors | p. 153 |
Various Sensor Geometries and Configurations | p. 153 |
Equivalent Circuits | p. 155 |
Impedance Measurement | p. 155 |
Impedance Plane Representation | p. 155 |
Factors Affecting Eddy Current Response | p. 157 |
Materials Properties Affecting Eddy Currents | p. 157 |
Effects of Cracks on Eddy Currents | p. 158 |
Geometrical Factors Affecting Eddy Currents | p. 158 |
Mutual Inductance | p. 160 |
References | p. 161 |
Magnetic Testing Methods | p. 163 |
Magnetization | p. 163 |
Intrinsic Magnetic Properties | p. 163 |
Magnetization Curves and Hysteresis | p. 164 |
Dynamic Demagnetizing Effects: Reducing the Magnetization to Zero | p. 164 |
Static Demagnetizing Effects: The Demagnetizing Factor | p. 165 |
Equations Governing the Demagnetizing Effects in Inhamogeneous Materials | p. 167 |
Magnetic Methods for Evaluation of Defects | p. 168 |
Intrinsic Methods | p. 168 |
Extrinsic Methods | p. 168 |
Detection of Flaws and Cracks Using Magnetic Flux Leakage | p. 169 |
Description of Cracks as Magnetic Dipoles | p. 170 |
Equations for Fields around Cracks | p. 170 |
Examples of Leakage Field Calculations | p. 173 |
Magnetic Particle Inspection | p. 174 |
Various Procedures for Generating the Magnetic Field for MPI | p. 174 |
Practical Considerations for Use in MPI | p. 175 |
Rigid Coils | p. 175 |
Flexible Coils | p. 176 |
Current Needed to Magnetize Steels | p. 176 |
Ketos Ring Test | p. 176 |
Pie Gauge Test | p. 177 |
Special Techniques for MPI | p. 178 |
References | p. 180 |
Radiographic Testing Methods | p. 183 |
X-Ray Imaging | p. 183 |
X-Ray Images | p. 183 |
Blurring of Images | p. 184 |
Projection Radiography | p. 184 |
Geometrical Unsharpness | p. 184 |
Magnification | p. 186 |
Other Geometrical Features | p. 186 |
Contact Radiography | p. 186 |
Radiographic Film | p. 187 |
Properties of the X-Ray Film | p. 187 |
Film Exposure | p. 187 |
Photographic Density | p. 187 |
Radiographic Contrast | p. 188 |
Film Density and Gradient | p. 188 |
Unsharpness | p. 189 |
Radiographs | p. 190 |
Beam Divergence | p. 190 |
Examples of How Material Defects Can Appear in a Radiograph | p. 191 |
Optimum Exposure of Radiographs | p. 193 |
Variation of Radiographic Density with Exposure | p. 193 |
Effects of Spatial Variation in Mass Attenuation Coefficients | p. 195 |
Determination of Optimum Exposure Time for a Radiograph | p. 195 |
Photon Energy | p. 195 |
Absorption or Attenuation Coefficient | p. 196 |
X-Ray Intensity | p. 196 |
Radiographic Contrast | p. 196 |
Film Unsharpness | p. 196 |
Equivalent Thickness of Steel | p. 196 |
Correction for Film Density | p. 197 |
Normalization for Source-to-Film Distance | p. 197 |
References | p. 198 |
Thermal Testing Methods | p. 201 |
Heat Transfer | p. 201 |
Thermal Conduction | p. 201 |
Thermal Radiation | p. 202 |
Temperature Transients | p. 202 |
Heat Flow | p. 203 |
Thermal Waves | p. 203 |
Thermal Inspection Procedures | p. 204 |
Contact Detection Methods | p. 204 |
Noncontact Detection Methods | p. 205 |
Thermometry | p. 205 |
Contact Thermometry | p. 205 |
Noncontact Thermometry | p. 205 |
Thermography | p. 205 |
Contact Thermography | p. 207 |
Liquid Crystals | p. 207 |
Phosphors | p. 207 |
Heat Sensitive Paints | p. 208 |
Heat Sensitive Papers | p. 208 |
Noncontact Thermography | p. 208 |
Applications of Thermography | p. 209 |
Sonic Infrared Inspection | p. 209 |
References | p. 209 |
Destructive vs. Nondestructive Testing | p. 211 |
Testing Options | p. 211 |
Testing vs. No Testing | p. 211 |
Factors to Consider in Selecting Tests | p. 212 |
Destructive Testing vs. Nondestructive Testing | p. 212 |
Economics of Testing | p. 213 |
Added Value vs. Cost of Nondestructive Testing | p. 214 |
Added Value vs. Cost of Destructive Testing | p. 214 |
Profit vs. Cost of Failure | p. 214 |
In-Service Testing | p. 214 |
Added Value vs. Costs of Nondestructive Testing and Failure | p. 215 |
Destructive Tests with Cost of Failure | p. 215 |
Economic Considerations in Destructive vs. Nondestructive Testing | p. 216 |
Materials Characterization | p. 217 |
Materials Characterization vs. Nondestructive Evaluation | p. 217 |
Intrinsic Properties vs. Performance | p. 217 |
Examples of Characterization Methods | p. 218 |
Remaining Lifetime and Failure of Materials | p. 219 |
References | p. 219 |
Defect Detection | p. 221 |
Terminology for Nondestructive Evaluation | p. 221 |
Discontinuity, Imperfection, Flaw, and Defect | p. 221 |
Noncritical Flaw | p. 221 |
Critical Flaw | p. 221 |
Indication | p. 221 |
False Indication | p. 222 |
Nonrelevant Indication | p. 222 |
Relevant Indication | p. 222 |
Interpretation and Evaluation | p. 222 |
Probability of Detection | p. 222 |
Dependence of Signal Amplitude on Flaw Size | p. 223 |
Threshold Signal Level | p. 223 |
Probability of Detection: Ideal Conditions | p. 225 |
Probability of Detection: Real Conditions | p. 226 |
Statistical Variation of Signal Levels | p. 228 |
Mathematical Formalism Using a Normal Distribution | p. 228 |
Other Statistical Distributions | p. 232 |
References | p. 232 |
Reliability and Lifetime Extension | p. 235 |
Reliability and Criteria for Decisions | p. 235 |
Accept/Reject Criteria | p. 235 |
Threshold Signal Level | p. 236 |
Decision Matrix | p. 237 |
False Accepts and False Rejects | p. 238 |
Dependence of Probability of False Accepts on Threshold Signal Level | p. 239 |
Dependence of Probability of False Rejects on Threshold Signal Level | p. 241 |
Relative Operating Characteristics: The ROC Curve | p. 241 |
Lifetime Extension | p. 242 |
Economic Considerations | p. 243 |
Retirement for Cause | p. 244 |
References | p. 244 |
Solutions to Exercises | p. 245 |
Index | p. 265 |
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