Learned Helplessness

1: Introduction 1.1: The Phenomena of Helplessness and Personal Control 1.2: The Theory of Learned Helplessness 1.3: Three Uses of "Learned Helplessness" 1.4: Learned Helplessness: Inward, Downward, and Outward 1.5: Why Learned Helplessness Has Been Controversial 1.6: Why Learned Helplessness Has Been Popular 2: Learned Helplessness in Animals 2.1: Learned Helplessness Theory 2.2: The Controversy 2.3: Contiguity Versus Contingency 2.4: Representation and Expectation 2.5: What We Know 2.6: What We Don't Know 3: The Biology of Learned Helplessness 3.1: Norepinephrine 3.2: Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid 3.3: Endogenous Opiates 3.4: Transmitters, Neuromodulators, and Hormones 3.5: Corticotrophin Releasing Hormone (CRH) 3.6: Issues Omitted 3.7: What We Know 3.8: What We Don't Know 4: Learned Helplessness in People 4.1: Criteria of Learned Helplessness 4.2: Operationalizing Learned Helplessness in the Laboratory 4.3: A Meta-Analysis of Human Helplessness Studies 4.4: Other Aspects of Human Helplessness 4.5: The Generality of Learned Helplessness Among People 4.6: Cognition and Self-Report 4.7: Other Explanations 4.8: What We Know 4.9: What We Don't Know 5: The Attributional Reformulation 5.1: Historical Background: Attribution Theory and Theorizing 5.2: Causal Explanations and Locus of Control 5.3: The Reformulated Learned Helplessness Model 5.4: Assessing Explanatory Style 5.5: Empirical Studies of Explanatory Style 5.6: What We Know 5.7: What We Don't Know 6: Learned Helplessness and Depression 6.1: What Is Depression? 6.2: The Reformulation of the Learned Helplessness Model of Depression 6.3: Modernity and Depression 6.4: Controversies 6.5: What We Know 6.6: What We Don't Know 7: Learned Helplessness and Social Problems 7.1: Survey of Applications 7.2: What We Know 7.3: What We Don't Know 8: Learned Helplessness and Physical Health 8.1: Some Groundrules 8.2: Risk Factors for Illness 8.3: Mechanisms 8.4: Health and Illness in Animals Versus People 8.5: What We Know 8.6: What We Don't Know 9: Epilogue 9.1: A Brief History of Choices 9.2: The Importance of Control 9.3: Learned Helplessness as a Model of Scientific Dispute and Progress 9.4: Learned Helplessness and the Age of Personal Control 9.5: Optimism Institutes