| Overview on Low Dielectric Constant Materials for IC Applications | p. 1 |
| Introduction | p. 1 |
| Dielectric Constant and Bonding Characteristics | p. 4 |
| Material Properties and Integration Requirements | p. 8 |
| Characterization of Low-k Dielectrics | p. 11 |
| Porous Low-k Materials | p. 14 |
| Conclusion | p. 18 |
| References | p. 19 |
| Materials Issues and Characterizationof Low-k Dielectric Materials | p. 23 |
| Introduction | p. 23 |
| Thin-Film Material Characterization | p. 26 |
| General Structure-Property Relationships | p. 37 |
| Dielectric Constant | p. 37 |
| Thermal Properties | p. 43 |
| Moisture Uptake | p. 46 |
| Thermomechanical and Thermal Stress Properties | p. 46 |
| Fluorinated Polyimide: Effect of Chemical-Structure Modifications on Film Properties | p. 48 |
| Crosslinked and Thermosetting Materials | p. 51 |
| Parylene Polymers: Effect of Thermal History on Film Properties | p. 56 |
| Future Challenges | p. 64 |
| References | p. 68 |
| Structure and Property Characterization of Low-k Dielectric Porous Thin Films Determined by X-Ray Reflectivity and Small-Angle Neutron Scattering | p. 75 |
| Introduction | p. 75 |
| Two-Phase Methodology | p. 76 |
| Experimental | p. 77 |
| Two-Phase Analysis Using the Debye Model | p. 79 |
| Results and Discussion | p. 80 |
| Three-Phase Methodology | p. 83 |
| Films with Ordered Porous Structure | p. 86 |
| Limits of SANS Characterization Methods | p. 87 |
| Future Developments | p. 88 |
| Contrast Variation SXR | p. 88 |
| Inhomogeneous Wall Composition | p. 89 |
| Conclusion | p. 92 |
| References | p. 92 |
| Vapor Deposition of Low-k Polymeric Dielectrics | p. 95 |
| Introduction | p. 95 |
| Vapor-Phase Deposition and Polymerization on Substrates | p. 97 |
| Parylenes | p. 98 |
| Synthesis Review | p. 99 |
| Properties of Parylene-N | p. 100 |
| Mechanisms and Models of Parylene Polymerization | p. 101 |
| Integration Issues with Parylene-N | p. 106 |
| Synthesis and Properties of Parylene-F | p. 107 |
| Integration Issues with Parylene-F | p. 110 |
| Polynaphthalene and Its Derivatives | p. 111 |
| Experimental System for Polynaphthalene Synthesis | p. 111 |
| Properties of Polynaphthalene and Fluorinated Polynaphthalene | p. 113 |
| Teflon and Its Derivatives | p. 114 |
| Synthesis of Teflon-AF | p. 114 |
| Properties of Teflon-AF | p. 115 |
| Integration Issues with Teflon | p. 115 |
| Vapor-Deposited Polyimides | p. 116 |
| Prospects for Vapor-Depositable Low-k Polymers | p. 117 |
| References | p. 117 |
| Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition of FSG and a-C:F Low-k Materials | p. 121 |
| Introduction | p. 121 |
| FSG Films | p. 122 |
| Introduction | p. 122 |
| General Characteristics | p. 122 |
| HDP-CVD FSG Film | p. 128 |
| a-C:F Films | p. 144 |
| Introduction | p. 144 |
| Deposition of a-C:F by PE-CVD and Controlling Fluorine Concentration | p. 145 |
| Control of F/C Ratio by Helicon-Wave HDP-CVD | p. 146 |
| Mechanism of the Reduction of the Dielectric Constant of a-C:F | p. 151 |
| Signal-Delay Measurements of CMOS Circuits | p. 156 |
| Conclusion | p. 162 |
| References | p. 163 |
| Porous Organosilicates for On-Chip Applications: Dielectric Generational Extendibility by the Introduction of Porosity | p. 167 |
| Introduction | p. 167 |
| Porous Silica | p. 171 |
| Organosilicates | p. 173 |
| Porogens | p. 175 |
| Porous Organosilicate Matrix Resins | p. 180 |
| Formation of Nanohybrids | p. 183 |
| Porous Organosilicates | p. 186 |
| Characterization of Porous Organosilicates | p. 187 |
| Conclusion | p. 196 |
| References | p. 198 |
| Metal/Polymer Interfacial Interactions | p. 203 |
| Introduction | p. 203 |
| Experimental Methods | p. 204 |
| XPS and AES Analysis | p. 205 |
| XPS for Nucleation Modes | p. 206 |
| Other Surface-Science Techniques | p. 207 |
| Metal-Deposition Techniques | p. 207 |
| Metallization of Fluoropolymers | p. 209 |
| Metal Evaporation | p. 209 |
| Sputter Deposition | p. 210 |
| Aluminum MOCVD | p. 210 |
| Copper MOCVD | p. 213 |
| Polymers on Metals: Adhesion to Cu | p. 216 |
| Introduction to SiC films | p. 216 |
| Vinyl Silane-Derived Films on Cu | p. 217 |
| Conclusion | p. 218 |
| References | p. 219 |
| Diffusion of Metals in Polymers and During Metal/Polymer Interface Formation | p. 221 |
| Introduction | p. 221 |
| Thermodynamic Considerations | p. 223 |
| Effect of Metal-Polymer Interaction on the Mobility of Metal Atoms | p. 227 |
| Surface Diffusion, Nucleation, and Growth of Metal Films | p. 229 |
| Diffusion and Aggregation | p. 235 |
| Atomic Diffusion | p. 241 |
| Conclusion | p. 247 |
| References | p. 248 |
| Plasma Etching of Low Dielectric Constant Materials | p. 253 |
| Introduction | p. 253 |
| Technological Requirements and Patterning Approaches | p. 255 |
| Damascene Processing | p. 255 |
| Plasma Etching | p. 257 |
| Important Low Dielectric Constant Materials | p. 258 |
| Fluorocarbon-Based Etching Processes | p. 260 |
| Fluorine-Doped SiO2 (SiOF), Hydrogen Silsequioxane (HSQ) and Methyl Silsequioxane (MSQ) | p. 260 |
| Porous Silica Films | p. 263 |
| Directional Etching of Organic Low-k Materials | p. 265 |
| Hydrocarbon-Based Organic Materials: Etching of Olyarylene Ether (PAE-2) in Ar/O2/N2 Gas Mixtures | p. 268 |
| Fluorocarbon-Based Organic Materials: Polytetrafluoroethylene | p. 269 |
| Hybrid Materials | p. 271 |
| Postetch Mask-Stripping and Via-Cleaning Processes | p. 271 |
| Conclusion | p. 274 |
| References | p. 275 |
| Integration of SiLK Semiconductor Dielectric | p. 277 |
| Introduction | p. 277 |
| SiLK Semiconductor Dielectric | p. 278 |
| Subtractive Technologies | p. 279 |
| Introduction | p. 279 |
| Integration Flow for Subtractive Interconnects | p. 281 |
| Integration Unit Steps | p. 282 |
| Electrical Results | p. 288 |
| Conclusion | p. 288 |
| Damascene Technologies | p. 290 |
| Introduction | p. 290 |
| Embedded-Hardmask Approach for Dual Damascene | p. 290 |
| Dual Damascene Schemes with Multilayered Hardmasks | p. 297 |
| Cost-of-Ownership | p. 301 |
| Conclusion | p. 302 |
| References | p. 303 |
| Index | p. 305 |
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