List of Contributors xvii
Preface xxiii
Acknowledgment xxvii
1 An Introduction to Electronic Waste 1
Anshu Priya
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Generation and Composition of E-Waste 3
1.3 Present Status of E-Waste Management and Recycling 4
1.3.1 Pyrometallurgical Process 5
1.3.2 Hydrometallurgical Process 7
1.3.3 Biometallurgy 7
1.4 Comparative Assessment of the Metallurgical Options for Metal Recovery 10
1.5 Future Prospects 10
1.6 Conclusion 11
References 11
2 The Global Challenge of E-Waste Generation 15
Lucas Reijnders
2.1 Introduction 15
2.2 The Fate of Steel and Al Alloys 20
2.3 The Fate of Synthetic Polymers 21
2.4 The Fate of Glass Present in E-Waste 23
2.5 The Fate of Geochemically Scarce Elements in Electric and Electronic Components of E-Waste 24
2.6 What Happens to Other Significant Constituents of E-Waste? 26
2.6.1 Li-Ion Batteries 26
2.6.2 Refrigerants 27
2.6.3 Phosphors and Hg Used in Fluorescent Lamps 27
2.7 Conclusion: The Global Challenge of E-Waste 28
References 28
3 Generation, Composition, Collection, and Treatment of E-Waste 39
Monjur Mourshed, Sharifa Khatun, Kaviul Islam, Nahid Imtiaz Masuk, and Mahadi Hasan Masud
Abbreviations 39
3.1 Introduction 40
3.2 Global E-Waste Generation Scenario 42
3.3 General Composition of E-Waste 45
3.4 E-Waste Collection Strategies 49
3.4.1 Overview 49
3.5 Formal E-Waste Management 51
3.5.1 Overview 51
3.5.2 Government Authorities/Municipal Authorities 52
3.5.3 Extended Producer Responsibility 53
3.5.4 Extended Consumer Responsibility 55
3.5.5 Take Back Policy 55
3.6 Informal E-Waste Management 56
3.6.1 Overview 56
3.6.2 Local Vendors 57
3.6.3 Others 59
3.7 Treatment of E-Waste 59
3.7.1 Overview 59
3.8 Reuse and Refurbish 60
3.9 Recycle 60
3.10 Recovery 63
3.11 Reduce 64
3.12 Rethinking 65
3.13 Conclusion 65
References 66
4 Toxicity Characterization and Environmental Impact of E-Waste Processing 73
Shahriar Shams, Pg Rusydina Idris, and Ismawi Yusof
4.1 Introduction 73
4.2 Impact of E-Waste 75
4.2.1 Direct Impact 76
4.2.2 Indirect Impact 76
4.3 Environmental Impact 77
4.3.1 Impact on Soil 77
4.3.2 Impacts on Water 78
4.3.3 Impact on Air 79
4.4 Health Impact 79
4.5 Ecological Impact 80
4.6 Impact from Processing E-Waste 82
4.6.1 Smelting Method 82
4.6.2 Hydrometallurgical Method 83
4.6.3 Physical Separation Method 83
4.6.4 Scrapping Method 84
4.7 Conclusions 84
References 84
5 Exposure to E-Wastes and Health Risk Assessment 88
Atul Kumar, Abhishek Sharma, and Anshu Priya
5.1 Introduction 88
5.2 E-Waste Categorization and Vulnerable Population 91
5.3 Exposure Pathways and Health Implications of E-Waste 93
5.4 Chemical Composition of E-Waste and Health Risks Associated with Their Exposure 96
5.4.1 Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) 96
5.4.2 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) 96
5.4.3 Dioxins 96
5.4.4 Heavy Metals 96
5.5 Health Risk Assessments 100
5.5.1 Noncarcinogenic Risk Assessment 100
5.5.2 Carcinogenic Risk Assessment 101
5.6 E-Waste Management 103
5.7 Conclusion 105
References 106
6 Metal Resources in Electronics: Trends, Opportunities and Challenges 114
Marcelo P. Cenci, Daniel D. Munchen, Jose C. Mengue Model, and Hugo M. Veit
6.1 Introduction 114
6.2 Composition of Different EEE Components: Past, Present, and Tendencies 115
6.2.1 Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs) 115
6.2.2 LED Lamps 118
6.2.3 Screens 122
6.2.4 Batteries 127
6.2.5 Magnets 129
6.3 Environmental Burden of the Electronic Devices 132
6.4 Recycling and Metal Recovery 134
6.4.1 PCBs 134
6.4.2 LED Lamps 135
6.4.3 Screens 135
6.4.4 Batteries 136
6.4.5 Magnets 137
6.5 Major Challenges in Management 137
6.6 Concluding Remarks and Perspectives 138
References 139
7 Urban Mining of e-Waste: Conversion of Waste to Wealth 152
Piotr Nowakowski
7.1 The Principles of Urban Mining and the Life Cycle of Electrical and Electronic Equipment 152
7.2 Materials for Recovery from Electrical and Electronic Equipment 156
7.3 The Collections and Social Attitude Toward Disposal of E-Waste 160
7.3.1 Methods of WEEE Collections 160
7.3.2 The Awareness of the Inhabitants When Choosing the Method of Waste Disposal 162
7.4 Discussion and Conclusion 163
References 165
8 Life Cycle Assessment and Techno-Economic of E-waste Recycling 173
Deblina Dutta, Rahul Rautela, Pankaj Meena, Venkata Ravi Sankar Cheela, Pranav Prashant Dagwar, and Sunil Kumar
8.1 Introduction 173
8.1.1 Life Cycle Assessment 174
8.1.2 Techno-Economic Analysis 174
8.1.3 System Application in E-Waste System 177
8.2 Life Cycle Assessment of E-waste Systems 179
8.2.1 LCA Methodology 179
8.2.2 Software Used for Modeling 181
8.2.3 Input and Output Modeling Parameters 182
8.2.4 Impact Method and Impact Software 182
8.3 Techno-Economic Analysis 184
8.3.1 Cost Estimation 184
8.3.2 Process Modeling 185
8.4 Conclusion 187
References 188
9 E-waste Recycling: Transition from Linear to Circular Economy 191
Abhinav Ashesh
9.1 Introduction 191
9.2 Linear Economy and its Limitations 192
9.3 Circular Economy – Need of the Hour 193
9.4 The Transition from Linear to Circular Economy 195
9.5 Understanding E-Waste Through Smartphones 196
9.5.1 Increasing Circularity in the Smartphone Market 198
9.6 Conclusion 198
References 199
10 E-Waste Valorization and Resource Recovery 202
Anusha Vishwakarma and Subrata Hait
10.1 Introduction 202
10.2 E-Waste Composition 204
10.3 Resource Recovery Techniques 208
10.3.1 Mechanical Methods 208
10.3.2 Pyrometallurgy 209
10.3.3 Hydrometallurgy 210
10.3.4 Biohydrometallurgy 211
10.4 Valorization of E-Waste for Circular Economy 212
10.4.1 Benefits of Valorization 213
10.4.2 Comparison of Resource Recovery Technique 214
10.4.3 Case Studies 216
10.5 Opportunities and Challenges of Valorization of E-Waste 223
10.6 Conclusion 223
References 224
11 Hydrometallurgical Processing of E-waste and Metal Recovery 234
Amilton Barbosa Botelho Junior, Ummul Khair Sultana, and James Vaughan
11.1 Introduction 234
11.2 Characterization 237
11.3 Leaching Techniques 241
11.3.1 Acid Leaching 242
11.3.1.1 Inorganic Acids 242
11.3.1.2 Organic Acids 243
11.3.2 Alkaline Leaching 243
11.3.3 Cyanide Leaching 244
11.3.4 Thiosulfate and Thiourea Leaching 248
11.4 Separation and Recovery 251
11.4.1 Precipitation 251
11.4.2 Solvent Extraction 252
11.4.3 Ion Exchange Resins 254
11.4.4 Electrodeposition 257
11.5 Emerging Technologies for E-Waste Recycling 258
11.5.1 Ionic Liquids 258
11.5.2 Deep Eutectic Solvents 261
11.5.3 Supercritical Fluids 265
11.5.4 Nanohydrometallurgy 267
11.6 Conclusion and Futures Perspectives 268
Acknowledgments 269
References 270
12 Microbiology Behind Biological Metal Extraction 289
Mishra Bhawana and Pant Deepak
12.1 Background 289
12.2 Overview of E-Waste: A Global Hazard 291
12.3 E-Waste Categories and Classification 292
12.3.1 E-Waste Categories 292
12.3.2 Physical and Chemical Composition of E-Waste 292
12.4 Environmental Hazards Due to E-Waste Composition 293
12.5 Health Risks from E-Waste Exposure 294
12.6 Bioremediation Techniques for E-Waste Management 294
12.7 Why Biological Methods for Metal Extraction from E-Waste 296
12.7.1 Leaching Mechanisms of Heavy Metals from E-Waste 297
12.7.2 Direct Bacterial Leaching 298
12.7.3 Indirect Bacterial Leaching 298
12.7.4 Role of Microbes in Metal Leaching Process from E-Waste 298
12.7.5 Major Microorganisms Involved in Metal Leaching 299
12.7.5.1 Acidophiles 303
12.7.5.2 Cynobacteria 303
12.7.5.3 Thiobacillus 303
12.7.5.4 Thermophilic Bacteria 303
12.7.5.5 Siderophores 304
12.7.5.6 Heterotrophic Microorganisms 304
12.8 Types of Bioremediation 304
12.9 Factors Influencing Microbial Metal Leaching 305
12.9.1 Availability of Nutrients 305
12.9.2 Aeration 306
12.9.3 Substrate 306
12.9.4 Surfactant, Chelators, and Complexing Agents 306
12.9.5 Temperature 306
12.9.6 Genomic and Metagenomic Challenges 307
12.10 Conclusion 307
12.11 Future Prospects 307
References 308
13 Advances in Bioleaching of Rare Earth Elements from Electronic Wastes 321
Xu Zhang, Ningjie Tan, Seyed Omid Rastegar, and Tingyue Gu
13.1 Introduction 321
13.2 REEs Recovery Technology 325
13.2.1 Classification and Characteristics of REEs Recovery and Treatment Technologies 325
13.2.1.1 Pyrometallurgy 326
13.2.1.2 Hydrometallurgy 326
13.2.1.3 Bioleaching 326
13.2.1.4 Electrochemical Technology 332
13.2.1.5 Leaching Using Cell-Free Supernatant 333
13.2.2 Recovery of REEs from WEEE 334
13.3 Post-Leaching/Bioleaching Process 336
13.3.1 Chemical Methods for Post-Leaching Recovery of Metals 336
13.3.1.1 Precipitation 336
13.3.1.2 Solvent Extraction 337
13.3.1.3 Ion Exchange 339
13.3.1.4 Adsorption 340
13.3.1.5 Electrochemical Method 342
13.3.1.6 Bioelectrochemical Method 342
13.4 Conclusion and Outlook 343
References 345
14 Bioprocessing of E-waste for Metal Recovery 359
Tannaz Naseri, Ashkan Namdar, and Seyyed Mohammad Mousavi
14.1 Introduction 359
14.2 Bioprocessing of E-waste for Metal Recovery 360
14.2.1 Autotrophic Bioleaching 361
14.2.2 Heterotrophic Bioleaching 362
14.2.3 Fungal Bioleaching 364
14.2.4 The Bioleaching Reaction: Biochemical Mechanisms 365
14.2.5 Industrial Scales of Bioleaching 366
14.3 Biosorption and Bioaccumulation of Metals 368
14.4 Perspective and Future Aspects 369
Acknowledgments 370
References 370
15 State-of-the-Art Biotechnological Recycling Processes 375
Mital Chakankar, Franziska Lederer, Rohan Jain, Sabine Matys, Sabine Kutschke, and Katrin Pollmann
15.1 Introduction 375
15.2 State-of-the-art Biotechnological Processes 378
15.2.1 Bioleaching 378
15.2.1.1 Biohydrometallurgy Based on Naturally Occurring Peptides 381
15.2.2 Biosorption 382
15.2.2.1 Biomass and Siderophores 382
15.2.2.2 Artificial Metal-Binding Peptides 388
15.2.2.3 Peptide-Based Biohybrid Tools for Resource Recovery 389
15.2.3 Bioreduction 390
15.2.4 Bioflotation 393
15.3 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 394
References 395
16 Biorecovery of Critical and Precious Metals 406
Shivangi Mathur, Nirmaladevi Saravanan, Soumya V. Menon, and Biswaranjan Paital
16.1 Introduction to Critical and Precious Metals for Recovery 406
16.2 Precious Metal E-waste Recovery in the International Market 407
16.2.1 Expected Fastest-Growing E-waste Recovery: Copper 408
16.2.2 Expected Thriving Local Segment for Valuable Metals Electronic Waste Recapturing: Europe and the Asia Pacific 408
16.3 E-waste Sources and Progression 408
16.4 Conventional E-waste Metal Recovery Methods and Their Limitations 409
16.4.1 Chemical Leaching 409
16.4.1.1 Pretreatment of E-waste 411
16.4.2 Physical Methods (Grinding and Pulverizing) 411
16.4.2.1 Disassembly 411
16.4.2.2 Treatment 412
16.4.2.3 Refinement: Porphyrin Polymers 412
16.4.3 Photocatalysis 413
16.4.4 Pyrometallurgy 415
16.4.4.1 Process of Pyrometallurgy 415
16.4.4.2 Limitations and Drawbacks of Pyrometallurgy 416
16.4.5 Hydrometallurgy 417
16.5 Biorecovery of Valuable Metals from Electronic Waste 418
16.5.1 Microbial Mobilization 418
16.5.1.1 Extraction Through Biologically Mediated Reactions 418
16.5.1.2 Principles and Mechanism of Microbial Leaching 418
16.5.2 Metal Mobilization Mechanism 420
16.5.3 Microorganisms Involved in Bioleaching 422
16.5.3.1 Chemolithoautotrophs 423
16.5.3.2 Heterotrophs 423
16.5.4 Bioreactors used for Bioleaching 423
16.5.5 Biosorption of Precious Metals 425
16.5.6 Biomineralization 425
16.6 Factors Affecting Biorecovery of Precious Metals 426
16.6.1 Oxygen Supply 426
16.6.2 pH 426
16.6.3 Mineral Substrate 427
16.6.4 Nutrients 427
16.6.5 Temperature 427
16.6.6 Presence of Organic Surfactants and Extractants 427
16.6.7 Concentration of Heavy Metals 427
16.7 Confirmatory Tests for Recovered Metals from E-waste 428
16.8 Biorecovery and Environment Sustainability 428
16.9 Biorecovery and Socio-economic Sustainability 429
16.10 Conclusion 429
References 430
17 Biohydrometallurgical Metal Recycling/Recovery from E-waste: Current Trend, Challenges, and Future Perspective 436
Shital C. Thacker, Devayani R. Tipre, and Shailesh R. Dave
17.1 Introduction 436
17.2 Overview of Biological Approach for Recycling of Metals 439
17.2.1 Bioleaching 439
17.2.2 Biosorption 444
17.2.3 Bioaccumulation 445
17.2.4 Bioprecipitation 446
17.2.5 Biomineralization 447
17.2.6 Biomining 448
17.3 Existing E-waste Management Challenges 449
17.3.1 Biotic Factor Restrictions 450
17.3.2 Abiotic Factor Restrictions 450
17.4 Advance Technology for Recycling Metals 451
17.4.1 Biohydrometallurgical Engineering 451
17.4.2 rDNA Technology Involved in Microorganism 452
17.5 Future Development Strategies for E-waste Management 453
17.5.1 Application of Omics Technology for Biohydrometallurgy 453
17.5.2 Combined Multi-omic and Bioinformatics Technology 453
17.6 Conclusion and Recommendation 455
References 456
Index 465
