Marijuana and the Cannabinoids

Chapter 1. Cannabis and Natural Cannabis Medicines David P. Watson and Robert C. Clarke Introduction Life Cycle and Ecology Field Crop Production Glasshouse and Grow Room Production Resin Gland Anatomy and Development Cannabinoid and Terpenoid Biosynthesis Medical Values of Terpenes Cannabis' Origin, Domestication and Dispersal The Cannabis Species Debate Drug Cannabis Breeding The Introduction of "Indica" Advances in Medical Cannabis Research The Future of Medical Cannabis Conclusion References Chapter 2. Chemistry and Analysis of Phytocannabinoids and Other Cannabis Constituents Rudolf Brenneisen Chemistry of Phytocannabinoids and Non-Cannabinoid-Type Constituents Phytocannabinoids Introduction Chemistry THC Potency Trends THC in Hemp Seed Products Non-cannabinoid-type Constituents Terpenoids Hydrocarbons Nitrogen-containing Compounds Carbohydrates Flavonoids Fatty Acids Non-cannabinoid Phenols Simple Alcohols, Aldehydes, Ketones, Acids, Esters, Lactones Other Pharmacological Characteristics of Cannabinoids and Other Cannabis Constituents Analysis of Phytocannabinoids Microscopy Color Reactions Chromatographic Techniques Thin-layer Chromatography Gas Chromatography, Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) Other Techniques DNA testing References Chapter 3. Chemical Fingerprinting as a Means of Source Identification Mahmoud A. ElSohly, Donald F. Stanford, and Timothy P. Murphy Introduction Chemometrics Chemical Constituents of Cannabis Experimental Design Methodology Extraction GC/MS Analysis Multivariate Data Analysis Results of Phase II Study Similarities Within the Model Identification of Unknowns Indoor Vs. Outdoor Daughter Plants Grown in a Different Region Age and Sex Storage Conditions Hashish "Silver Bullet" Theory Conclusions Acknowledgements References Chapter 4. Marijuana Smoke Condensate: Chemistry and Pharmacology Hala N. ElSohly and Mahmoud A. ElSohly Introduction Preparation Production of Smoke Condensate Fractionation and Analysis of Marijuana Smoke Condensate Pharmacological and Toxicological Activities Behavioral Activity Mutagenicity Pulmonary Hazards Interaction with Estrogen Receptor Inhibition of Dihydrotestosterone Binding to the Androgen Receptor References Chapter 5. Pharmacology of Cannabinoids Lionel P. Raymon and H. Chip Walls Introduction Endogenous Ligands Cannabinoid Receptors Effects of Cannabinoids on Motor Coordination Cortical Areas Basal Ganglia and Cerebellum Effects of Cannabinoids on the Limbic System Hippocampus and Memory Impairment Amygdala and Behavioral Effects Hypothalamus and Neuroendocrine Effects Cannabinoids and Analgesia Cannabinoids and Addiction Cannabinoids and Cardiovascular Effects Cannabinoids and Immunomodulation Conclusions References Chapter 6. The Endocannabinoid System and the Therapeutic Potential of Cannabinoids Billy R. Martin Introduction Endocannabinoid System Appetite Emesis Pain Drug Dependence Summary References Chapter 7. Immunoassays for the Detection of Cannabis Abuse: Technologies, Development Strategies, and Multi-Level Applications Jane Tsai Introduction Commonly-Used Immunoassays for Drugs of Abuse Screening Homogeneous Competitive Immunoassays Heterogeneous Competitive Immunoassays Point-of-Collection Drug Immunoassays Cannabinoids Immunoassays Cannabinoid Test System Cannabinoids: Pharmacokinetics of and Drug Analysis Immunogen Strategies for Antibody Generation Regulations and Guidelines Comparitive Evaluation of Cannabinoids Immunoassays General Evaluations Cutoff Concentrations and Immunoassay Evaluations Correlation of Results from Cannabinoid Immunoassay and GC/MS Analysis Stability of Cannabinoids in Biological Matrices Hemp Seed/Oil Products, Synthetic THC Medication, and Drug Testing Cannabinoid-to-Creatinine Ratio Studies Specimen Validity Testing Conclusions References Chapter 8. Mass Spectrometric Methods for Determination of Cannabinoids Physiological Specimens Rodger L. Foltz Introduction Determination of 11-nor-9-carboxy-delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THCA) in Urine Determination of Other Cannabinoids in Urine Determination of Cannabinoids in Blood or Plasma Determination of Cannabinoids in Adipose Tissue and Other Tissues Determination of Cannabinoids in Meconium Determination of Cannabinoids in Oral Fluids Determination of Cannabinoids in Hair References Chapter 9. Human Cannabinoid Pharmacokinetics and Interpretation of Cannabinoid Concentrations in Biological Fluids and Tissues Marilyn A. Huestis and Michael L. Smith Introduction Cannabis Potency Absorption Distribution Metabolism Elimination Interpretation of Body Fluid and Hair Concentrations Plasma Urine Oral Fluid Sweat Hair Final Thoughts Acknowledgement References Chapter 10. Medical and Health Consequences of Marijuana Jag H. Khalsa Introduction Immune System Effects Cardio-Pulmonary/Cardio-Respiratory Effects Heptic and Renal Consequences Endocrine Effects Birth and Later Developmental Outcomes Effects of the Brain: Cognitive, Psychological and Mental Consequences Marijuana Dependence Genetic Effects Marijuana and Health Marijuana and Cancer Marijuana and Highway Accidents Summary References Chapter 11. Effects of Marijuana on the Lung and Immune Defenses Donald P. Tashkin and Michael D. Roth Introduction Acute Effects of Marijuana on Airway Physiology Effects of Habitual Marijuana Exposure on the Lung Animal Studies Human Studies Older Studies on the Effects of Cannabis on Respiratory Disorders and Lung Function Newer Studies on the Pulmonary Consequences of Marijuana Use Respiratory Symptoms Lung Function Effects on Airway Injury and Bronchial Epithelial Pathology Effects on Alveolar Macrophages Potential Effects of Marijuana on Respiratory Carcinogenesis Effects of Marijuana and THC on Immune Defenses Cannabinoid Receptors on Peripheral Blood Leukocytes THC Alters Cytokine Balance and Suppresses Host Immunity in Animal Models Impact of THC on Human Immune Responses and T Cell Activation Immunologic Suppression of Alveolar Macrophages (AM) in the Lungs of Habitual Marijuana Smokers Summary Acknowledgements References Chapter 12. Marijuana and Driving Impairment Barry K. Logan Effects of Marijuana Getting "High" Physiological Effects Cognitive and Psychomotor Effects Hallucinations Other Adverse Reactions Discussion Evidence of Marijuana Intoxication Diagnosis of Marijuana Use - Physiological and Psychomotor Effects Toxicological Effects Toxicological Evidence - Urine Toxicological Evidence - Blood THC and THC-COOH Concentrations THC/THC-COOH Ratio Toxicological Evidence - Oral Fluid (Saliva) Summary Epidemiology of Marijuana and Driving Assessment of Relative Crash Risk Following Marijuana Use Marijuana and On-Road Driving Studies Conclusions General Reading References Chapter 13. Postmortem Considerations Steven B. Karch Introduction Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodnamics Cardiovascular Effects Other Medical Effects Postmortem Measurements Cause of Death Determination References Chapter 14. Cannabinoid Effects on Biopsychological, Neuropsychiatric and Neurological Processes Richard E. Musty Introduction Hunger and Appetite Appetite Suppression Rio-North America Findings A Good Safety and Tolerability Profile Rimonabant and the EC System Pain Human Studies Various Potential for Natural Cannabinoids Psychological Disorders Anxiety Depression Bipolar Disorder Schizophrenia Animal Studies Human Studies Alcohol Dependence References