Introduction | p. 1 |
Global Energy Sources | p. 1 |
Fossil Fuel Sources | p. 3 |
The History of Petroleum | p. 4 |
Petroleum Refining | p. 6 |
Petroleum Products and Fuels | p. 9 |
Coal | p. 13 |
Chemicals and Fuels from Coal | p. 15 |
Natural Gas | p. 17 |
Gas Hydrates | p. 17 |
Oil Shale | p. 18 |
Tar Sands | p. 19 |
Natural Bitumen and Extra-heavy Oil | p. 20 |
Renewable Energy Sources | p. 21 |
Biomass | p. 22 |
Hydropower | p. 43 |
Geothermal Energy | p. 46 |
Wind Energy | p. 47 |
Solar Energy | p. 48 |
Other Renewable Energy Sources | p. 50 |
Municipal Solid Waste and Landfill Gas | p. 50 |
Nuclear Fuel Sources | p. 52 |
Summary | p. 53 |
References | p. 54 |
Natural Gas | p. 57 |
Introduction | p. 57 |
Definition and History | p. 59 |
Origin of Natural Gas | p. 60 |
Natural Gas Resources | p. 61 |
Natural Gas Production, Consumption, and Distribution | p. 62 |
Compressed Natural Gas | p. 65 |
Liquefied Natural Gas | p. 66 |
Contribution of Natural Gas to Global Warning | p. 67 |
Use of Natural Gas | p. 68 |
Industrial Uses | p. 69 |
Residential Use | p. 70 |
Electricity Generation using Natural Gas | p. 71 |
Commercial Use | p. 72 |
Natural Gas in the Transportation Sector | p. 72 |
Importance of Natural Gas | p. 73 |
Environmental Impacts | p. 73 |
Summary | p. 75 |
References | p. 76 |
Gas Hydrates | p. 77 |
Introduction | p. 77 |
Definition | p. 79 |
History | p. 80 |
Gas Hydrate Origin and Formation | p. 81 |
Clathrates and Crystalline Clathrate Solids | p. 85 |
Storage of Hydrogen in Clathrates | p. 86 |
Chemical Structures | p. 87 |
Chemical Structure of the Water Molecule | p. 87 |
Chemical Structure of the Methane Molecule | p. 89 |
Crystalline Structure of Water Ice | p. 90 |
Crystalline Structure of Gas Hydrate | p. 91 |
Crystal Types of Gas Hydrates | p. 92 |
Clathrate Structure I | p. 94 |
Clathrate Structure II | p. 95 |
Clathrate Structure H | p. 96 |
Methane Gas Fuel | p. 98 |
Combustion of Methane | p. 100 |
Main Reactions of Methane | p. 103 |
Summary | p. 107 |
References | p. 108 |
Methane Gas Hydrate: as a Natural Gas Source | p. 113 |
Introduction | p. 113 |
Importance of Methane Hydrates | p. 114 |
Global Climate Change | p. 116 |
Air Pollution | p. 116 |
Greenhouse Effect | p. 121 |
Global Warming | p. 122 |
Arguments Against Global Warming | p. 125 |
Kyoto Protocol | p. 125 |
Carbon Credits | p. 126 |
Carbon Sequestration | p. 127 |
Effects of Methane Hydrates on Climate Change | p. 128 |
World's Methane Hydrate Resources | p. 132 |
Gas Hydrates on the North Slope, Alaska | p. 136 |
Gas Hydrates in the Gulf of Mexico | p. 136 |
Gas Hydrates in Russia's West Siberian Basin | p. 137 |
Gas Hydrates in Canada | p. 137 |
Projects Related to Methane Hydrates in Japan, India, China, Malaysia, and Korea | p. 138 |
A Case Study: Methane Hydrates in the Black Sea | p. 139 |
Properties of Methane Hydrates | p. 141 |
Methane Hydrate Stability | p. 143 |
Facilities for Recovery of Methane from Methane Hydrate | p. 147 |
Disposal of Impurities from Methane | p. 148 |
Gas Hydrate Research and Development | p. 148 |
Properties of Seawater | p. 150 |
Summary | p. 154 |
References | p. 155 |
Processes for Methane Production from Gas Hydrates | p. 161 |
Introduction | p. 161 |
Depressurization Process | p. 163 |
Thermal Stimulation Process | p. 165 |
Chemical Inhibitor Injection Process | p. 166 |
Gas Hydrate Reservoirs | p. 169 |
Arctic Hydrates | p. 169 |
Marine Hydrates | p. 170 |
Seafloor Drilling of the Hydrate Zone for Exploration and Production of Methane | p. 171 |
Possible Transportation Routes | p. 174 |
Economic and Political Issues | p. 176 |
Summary | p. 177 |
References | p. 178 |
Index | p. 183 |
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