Preface xvii
Part 1 Issues and Concepts 1
1 Multicultural Education: Characteristics and Goals 3
by James A. Banks
1.1 The Nature of Multicultural Education 3
1.2 The Historical Development of Multicultural Education 4
1.2.1 How Multicultural Education Developed 6
1.3 The Nature of Culture in the United States 6
1.3.1 The Meaning of Culture 6
1.3.2 Identification and Description of the U.S. Core Culture 7
1.3.3 Equality 7
1.3.4 Individualism and Individual Opportunity 8
1.3.5 Individualism and Groupism 8
1.3.6 Expansionism and Manifest Destiny 8
1.3.7 Microcultures in the United States 9
1.3.8 Groups and Group Identification 11
1.3.9 The Teaching Implications of Group Identification 12
1.3.10 The Interaction of Race, Class, and Gender 13
1.4 The Social Construction of Categories 14
1.4.1 Gender 14
1.4.2 Sexual Orientation 14
1.4.3 Race 14
1.4.4 Social Class 15
1.4.5 Exceptionality 15
1.5 The Dimensions of Multicultural Education 16
1.5.1 Content Integration 17
1.5.2 The Knowledge Construction Process 17
1.5.3 Prejudice Reduction 18
1.5.4 An Equity Pedagogy 18
1.5.5 An Empowering School Culture and Social Structure 19
1.6 The School as a Social System 20
Summary 21
Questions and Activities 21
References 22
2 Culture, Teaching, and Learning 25
by Christina Convertino, Bradley A. Levinson, and Norma Gonzalez
2.1 Getting to Know Culture 26
2.1.1 Some Early Origins of the Construct of Culture 27
2.1.2 Connecting Culture with Education 28
2.1.3 Culture Change and Changes to Culture 29
2.2 Culture and Educational Achievement 32
2.2.1 Cultural Deficit Models 32
2.2.2 Cultural Difference Model and Mismatch Hypothesis 33
2.2.3 Educational Achievement: Voluntary versus Involuntary Immigrant Students 34
2.3 Putting Culture to Work: Culture and Learning in the 21st Century 35
2.3.1 Rethinking Learning and Cultural Processes in Education 36
2.3.2 Learning in Context: What Teachers Need to Know 36
Summary 38
Questions and Activities 38
References 38
Part 2 Social Class and Religion 41
3 Social Class and Education 43
by Lois Weis, Seong Won Han, and Hyunmyung Jo
3.1 Education and the Production of Social and Economic Inequalities 45
3.2 Ability Grouping and Tracking 47
3.3 Official Knowledge and Its Distribution 48
3.4 Access and Outcomes in the Postsecondary Sector 49
3.5 Research on Class Privilege 52
Summary 54
Questions and Activities 54
References 54
4 Christian Nation or Pluralistic Culture: Religion in American Life 60
by Charles H. Lippy
4.1 Europeans Plant Christianity in North America 61
4.2 Early Signs of Diversity 61
4.3 Common Themes 62
4.4 The Spread of Evangelical Protestantism 63
4.5 Religious Freedom and the Separation of Church and State 64
4.6 Diversity, Religious Freedom, and the Courts 67
4.7 Pluralism Becomes the Norm 70
4.8 New Faces of Pluralism 72
4.9 Summary and Educational Implications 76
4.10 Resources 76
Questions and Activities 78
References 78
Part 3 Gender 81
5 Gender Bias: Past, Present, and Future 83
by David Sadker, Karen Zittleman, and Melissa Koch
5.1 The Hidden Civil Rights Struggle 84
5.2 Report Card: The Cost of Sexism in Schools 86
5.3 Gender Bias in the Classroom: The Curriculum 89
5.3.1 Invisibility: What You Don’t See Makes a Lasting Impression 90
5.3.2 Stereotyping: Glib Shortcuts 90
5.3.3 Imbalance and Selectivity: A Tale Half-Told 90
5.3.4 Unreality: Rose-Colored Glasses 90
5.3.5 Fragmentation: An Interesting Sideshow 91
5.3.6 Linguistic Bias: Words Matter 91
5.3.7 Cosmetic Bias: Pretty Wrapping 91
5.4 Gender Bias in the Classrooms: Student–Teacher Interaction 91
5.5 Trends and Challenges 93
5.5.1 The Boy Crisis 93
5.5.2 The Rebirth of Single-Sex Education 95
5.5.3 Supporting Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer/Questioning (LGBTQ) Students 97
5.6 Strategies for Creating Gender-Fair Classrooms 98
Questions and Activities 99
References 99
6 Classrooms for Diversity: Rethinking Curriculum and Pedagogy 101
by Mary Kay Thompson Tetreault
6.1 Feminist Phase Theory 102
6.2 Male-Defined Curriculum 102
6.3 Contribution Curriculum 104
6.4 Bifocal Curriculum 104
6.5 Women’s Curriculum 106
6.6 Gender-Balanced Curriculum 109
6.7 Changes in Traditional Ways of Teaching 110
Sample Lessons 113
Language Arts 113
Mathematics and Science 113
Social Studies 115
Summary 116
Questions and Activities 116
References 116
7 Queer Lessons: Sexual and Gender Minorities in Multicultural Education 118
by Cris Mayo
7.1 Sexuality and Gender Identity 119
7.2 LGBTQ Legal Progress, Backlash, and the School Curriculum 120
7.3 Overlapping Histories of Multiculturalism and LGBTQ Movements 122
7.4 Histories of Gay-Inclusive Multiculturalism and Other Curricular Inclusiveness 124
7.5 Challenges to Homophobia and Heterosexism 124
7.6 Challenging Assumptions about LGBTQ People 125
7.7 Why Homophobia and Transphobia? 128
7.8 Dilemmas of Queer Inclusion 129
7.9 Seven Things to Do to Improve Education for Students of All Sexual Orientations and Genders 131
Questions and Activities 132
References 132
Part 4 Race, Language Diversity, and Civic Education 135
8 Approaches to Multicultural Curriculum Reform 137
by James A. Banks
8.1 The Mainstream-Centric Curriculum 137
8.2 Public Sites and Popular History 139
8.3 Efforts to Establish a Multicultural Curriculum 141
8.4 Levels of Integration of Multicultural Content 142
8.4.1 The Contributions Approach 142
8.4.2 The Additive Approach 144
8.4.3 The Transformation Approach 146
8.4.4 The Social Action Approach 148
8.4.5 Mixing and Blending Approaches 150
8.5 Guidelines for Teaching Multicultural Content 153
Summary 154
Questions and Activities 155
References 155
9 Backstage Racism: Implications for Teaching 158
by Leslie H. Picca and Ruth Thompson-Miller
9.1 Context 159
9.2 Methodology 159
9.3 Journals by White Students 160
9.3.1 The Frontstage 161
9.3.2 The Backstage 162
9.4 Journals by Students of Color 164
9.5 Comparing the Journals Written by Whites and Students of Color 168
9.6 Conclusion and Next Actionable Steps 169
Journal Exercise 170
How Do I Do This? 170
Questions and Activities 172
References 172
10 Language Diversity and Schooling 174
by Rachel Snyder and Manka Varghese
10.1 The History of Linguistic Diversity in the United States 175
10.2 Current Linguistic Diversity in the United States 177
10.3 Historical and Legal Overview of Language Policy in the United States 179
10.3.1 Implementation of Federal Policy 179
10.3.2 Language Policy in Recent History 181
10.4 Views on Language Learning and Teaching 183
10.4.1 Language 183
10.4.2 Theories of Second-Language Learning 184
10.5 Programmatic Responses to Linguistic Diversity 185
10.5.1 Instructional Programs 185
10.5.2 The Bilingual Debate and the Research Context 186
10.5.3 Program Types that Contribute to Successful Educational Practice 187
10.6 Instructional Methods and Approaches 188
10.6.1 English as a Second Language Instructional Strategies 188
10.6.2 Instructional Methods for Bilingual Education 189
10.7 Additional Considerations 190
10.7.1 The Lived Reality of Today’s Linguistically Diverse Students 190
10.8 Conclusion 191
Questions and Activities 192
Resources 192
Professional Associations 193
Websites 193
References 193
11 Civic Education for Non-Citizen and Citizen Students 198
by James A. Banks
11.1 Multicultural Citizenship Education and Cosmopolitan Human Rights Education 199
11.2 A Framework for Civic Education for Non-Citizens 200
11.3 Human Rights, Cosmopolitanism, and the Education of Non-Citizen Students 201
11.4 Education for Human Rights and Cosmopolitan Citizenship 202
11.5 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Education: Challenges and Opportunities 203
11.6 The Stages of Cultural Identity and Human Rights Cosmopolitan Education 205
11.7 Multicultural Citizenship Education for Citizen Students 208
11.8 Mainstream and Transformative Civic Education 210
Summary 211
Acknowledgments 212
Questions and Activities 212
References 212
Part 5 Exceptionality 215
12 Educational Equality for Students with Disabilities 217
by Sara C. Bicard and William L. Heward
12.1 Identification of Students with Disabilities 218
12.2 Is Disability a Social Construct? 220
12.3 How Many Students with Disabilities are There? 220
12.4 How are Students with Disabilities Classified? 221
12.5 How is Eligibility for Special Education Determined? 222
12.6 Does Classification Affect Instruction? 222
12.7 Brief History of Educational Equality for Students with Disabilities 222
12.8 The Individuals with Disabilities Act: A Legislative Mandate for Educational Equality for Students with Disabilities 224
12.8.1 Major Principles of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act 224
12.8.2 Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 229
12.8.3 The Americans with Disabilities Act 229
12.8.4 The Elementary and Secondary Education Act 230
12.9 Educational Equality for Students with Disabilities: Progress Made but Challenges Remain 230
12.9.1 Effective Instruction 231
12.9.2 General and Special Education Partnership 232
12.9.3 Early Intervention 233
12.9.4 Transition from School to Adult Life 233
12.9.5 Special Education in a Diverse Society 234
Summary 235
Questions and Activities 236
References 236
13 Culturally Responsive Special Education in Inclusive Schools 240
by Luanna H. Meyer, Hyun-Sook Park, and Saili Kulkarni
13.1 Special Education as Exclusion and Segregation 241
13.2 Strategies to Prevent Misdiagnosis and Disproportionality 243
13.3 The Monoculture of Mainstream Education 244
13.4 Parent Involvement and Working with Families 246
13.5 Causes of Limited Parent Involvement 247
13.6 Strategies for Schools to Increase Parent Involvement 249
13.6.1 Preparation of Professionals for Partnerships with Parents 250
13.6.2 Preparation of Parents for Partnerships with Educators 251
13.7 Culturally Competent Teachers and Inclusive Pedagogies 251
13.8 Preintervention Culturally Responsive Teaching 252
13.9 Culturally Responsive Interventions 254
13.10 Culturally Situated Schooling and Inclusive Pedagogies 255
13.11 Quality Inclusive Schools 255
13.12 Delivery of Special Education in the Context of General Education 256
13.13 Managing Inclusive Classrooms 257
13.14 Diversity and Caring Communities: Outcomes for the Social Good 258
Questions and Activities 259
References 260
Part 6 School Reform and Classroom Assessment 265
14 School Reform and Student Learning: A Multicultural Perspective 267
by Sonia Nieto and Patty Bode
14.1 Defining School Reform with a Multicultural Perspective 268
14.2 Conditions for Systemic School Reform Based on a Multicultural Perspective 269
14.3 School Reform Should Be Antiracist and Antibiased 270
14.4 School Reform Should Reflect an Understanding and Acceptance of All Students as Having Talents and Strengths That Can Enhance Their Education 273
14.5 School Reform Should Be Considered within the Parameters of Critical Pedagogy 275
14.6 What Kind of World Do You Want to Live In? Practicing and studying the Declaration of Human Rights 276
14.7 The People Most Intimately Connected with Teaching and Learning (Teachers, Families, and Students) Need to Be Meaningfully Involved in School Reform 278
14.8 School Reform Needs to Be Based on High Expectations and Rigorous Standards for All Learners 278
14.9 Conclusion 279
Questions and Activities 280
References 280
15 Communities, Families, and Educators Working Together for School Improvement 284
by Cherry A. McGee Banks
15.1 Reasons Why Parent and Family Involvement in Schools is Important 287
15.2 Historical Overview 289
15.3 The Changing Face of the Family 290
15.4 Parents with Special Needs 293
15.5 Single Parents 294
15.6 Low-Income Parents 294
15.7 Teacher Concerns with Parent and Family Involvement 295
15.8 Steps to Increase Parent and Family Involvement 296
15.9 Establish Two-Way Communication Between the School and the Home 297
15.10 Enlist Support from Other Staff Members and Students 298
15.11 Enlist Support from the Community 299
15.12 Develop Learning Resources for Parents to Use at Home 300
15.13 Broaden the Conception of Parent and Community Involvement 301
15.13.1 Parents Working with Their Own Children 301
15.13.2 Professional Support Person for Instruction 302
15.13.3 General Volunteers 302
15.13.4 Decision-Makers 302
Summary 303
Questions and Activities 303
Websites 303
References 304
16 Classroom Assessment and Diversity 306
by Catherine S. Taylor and Susan B. Nolen
16.1 Bias and Sensitivity Issues in Assessment 308
16.2 Lessons Learned from a Bias and Sensitivity Review Panel 310
16.2.1 “Othering” 310
16.2.2 Consistency with Culture 310
16.2.3 Respect for Indigenous Peoples 311
16.2.4 Developing Interpretations 311
16.2.5 Culturally Inappropriate Content 311
16.3 Investigating Potential Bias through Statistical Analyses 312
16.3.1 The Case of Bias Due to Multiple-Choice Format 313
16.4 The Impact of Language Complexity on ELL Students’ Performance 314
16.5 Potential Bias in Computer-Based Testing 315
16.6 The Effects of Engagement on Assessment Performance 317
16.7 The Social Context of Assessment 321
16.8 Teacher Assessment Practices 322
Summary 323
Questions and Activities 323
References 324
Appendix: Multicultural Resources 329
Glossary 333
Contributors 339
Index 343
