Neurophysiological Basis of Motor Control

Chapter 1. History, Evolution, and Motor Control 1.1 Brief History of Movement Studies 1.2 Evolution of Movements and Nikolai Bernstein's Theory 1.3 Motor Control and Laws of Nature Part I. Excitable Cells and Their Communication Chapter 2. Membranes, Particles, and Equilibrium Potentials 2.1 The Biological Membrane 2.2 Movement in a Solution 2.3 Concentration of Water: Osmosis 2.4 Movement of Ions: The Nernst Equation Chapter 3. Action Potential 3.1 Creation of a Membrane Potential 3.2 Basic Features of the Action Potential 3.3 Mechanisms of Generating an Action Potential Chapter 4. Information Conduction and Transmission 4.1 Conduction of an Action Potential 4.2 Myelinated Fibers 4.3 The Structure of a Neuron 4.4 Information Coding in the Nervous System 4.5 Synaptic Transmission 4.6 Neurotransmitters 4.7 Temporal and Spatial Summation Chapter 5. Skeletal Muscle 5.1 Skeletal Muscle Structure 5.2 Myofilaments 5.3 Neuromuscular Synapse 5.4 Mechanisms of Contraction 5.5 Types of Muscle Contractions 5.6 Elements of Mechanics 5.7 Force-Length and Force-Velocity Relations 5.8 External Regimes of Muscle Contraction Chapter 6. Peripheral Receptors 6.1 General Classification and Properties of Receptors 6.2 Muscle Spindles 6.3 The Gamma-System 6.4 Golgi Tendon Organs 6.5 Other Muscle Receptors 6.6 Articular Receptors 6.7 Cutaneous Receptors 6.8 Signals From Peripheral Receptors Chapter 7. Motor Units and Electromyography 7.1 The Motor Unit 7.2 Fast and Slow Motor Units 7.3 The Henneman Principle 7.4 Functional Roles of Different Motor Units 7.5 Electromyography 7.6 Processing Electromyographic Signals Problems for Part I Part II. Neuroanatomical Foundations of Motor Control Chapter 8. Cerebral Cortex 8.1 Structure of the Cerebral Cortex 8.2 Cells in the Cerebral Cortex 8.3 Premotor Cortex and Supplementary Motor Area 8.4 Primary Motor Cortex 8.5 Efferent Output From the Cortical Motor Areas 8.6 Afferent Input Into the Cortical Motor Areas 8.7 Hemispheric Lateralization in the Cortical Motor Areas 8.8 Preparation for a Voluntary Movement 8.9 Neuronal Population Vectors 8.10 Encoding Movement Parameters in the M1 8.11 Brain-Machine Interfaces Chapter 9. Basal Ganglia 9.1 Anatomy of the Basal Ganglia 9.2 Inputs and Outputs of the Basal Ganglia 9.3 Direct and Indirect Pathways Within the Basal Ganglia 9.4 Dopamine Modulation of Basal Ganglia Circuits 9.5 Motor Circuits Involving the Basal Ganglia 9.6 Activity of the Basal Ganglia During Movements 9.7 Movement Disorders Associated With the Basal Ganglia 9.8 Other Functions of the Basal Ganglia Chapter 10. Cerebellum 10.1 Overall Structure of the Cerebellum 10.2 Inputs and Outputs of the Cerebellum 10.3 Pathways Within the Cerebellum 10.4 Distinct Cerebellar Regions Control Discrete Motor Functions 10.5 Cerebellar Control of Movement 10.6 Consequences of Cerebellar Lesions on Movements 10.7 Cerebellar Contribution to Motor Learning 10.8 Cerebellar Interactions With the Basal Ganglia and Cortex Chapter 11. Brainstem and Extrapyramidal Tracts 11.1 Brainstem Anatomy 11.2 Reticular Formation 11.3 Superior Colliculus 11.4 Red Nucleus 11.5 Vestibular Nuclei 11.6 Cranial Nerves 11.7 Descending Tracts Problems for Part II Part III. Sensory Basis of Motor Control Chapter 12. Central Processing of Somatosensory Information 12.1 First-Order Neurons 12.2 Second-Order Neurons 12.3 Third-Order Neurons 12.4 Proprioceptive System 12.5 Primary and Secondary Somatosensory Cortex 12.6 Integration of Somatosensory Input With Other Sensory Modalities 12.7 Injuries to Somatosensory Pathways Chapter 13. Vestibular and Auditory System 13.1 Transduction in the Vestibular System 13.2 Vestibular Afferents Respond to Head Motion 13.3 Central Projections From the Otolith Organs and Semicircular Canals 13.4 Central Pathways That Stabilize Gaze, Posture, and Head Movements 13.5 Peripheral Auditory System 13.6 Central Auditory Projections From the Cochlea 13.7 Auditory Integration 13.8 Auditory Thalamus and Cortex 13.9 Auditory Cortex and Limb Motor Control Chapter 14. Visual System 14.1 Structure of the Eye 14.2 Structure of the Retina 14.3 Rods and Cones 14.4 Optic Nerve, Tracts, and Radiations 14.5 Striate Cortex 14.6 Retinotopic Organization of V1 14.7 Extrastriate Cortex 14.8 Neurons of the Two Visual Streams 14.9 Visual Deficits Due to Area-Specific Visual System Damage 14.10 Ocular Movements Problems for Part III Part IV. Reflexes and Reflex-Like Movements Chapter 15. Reflexes 15.1 Definition of a Reflex 15.2 Reflex Arc, Gain, and Latency 15.3 Reflex Classifications 15.4 Conditioned Reflexes Chapter 16. Excitation and Inhibition Within the Spinal Cord 16.1 The Spinal Cord 16.2 Excitation Within the Central Nervous System 16.3 Postsynaptic Inhibition 16.4 Recurrent Inhibition and Renshaw Cells 16.5 Reciprocal Inhibition 16.6 Presynaptic Inhibition 16.7 Persistent Inward Currents Chapter 17. Monosynaptic Reflexes 17.1 H-Reflex and M-Response 17.2 Tendon Tap Reflex (T-Reflex) 17.3 Effects of Voluntary Muscle Activation on Monosynaptic Reflexes 17.4 F-Wave Chapter 18. Oligosynaptic and Polysynaptic Reflexes 18.1 Oligosynaptic Reflexes 18.2 Polysynaptic Reflexes 18.3 Flexor Reflex 18.4 Tonic Stretch Reflex 18.5 Tonic Vibration Reflex 18.6 Interaction Among Reflex Pathways 18.7 Inter-Joint and Inter-Limb Reflexes Chapter 19. Long-Loop Reflexes and Reflex-Like Reactions 19.1 Preprogrammed Reactions 19.2 Preprogrammed Reactions Versus Stretch Reflexes 19.3 Afferent Sources of Preprogrammed Reactions 19.4 Preprogrammed Reactions During Movement Perturbations 19.5 Basic Features of Preprogrammed Reactions 19.6 Preprogrammed Corrections of Vertical Posture 19.7 Corrective Stumbling Reactions Problems for Part IV Part V. Control and Coordination of Goal-Oriented Movements Chapter 20. Voluntary Control of a Single Muscle 20.1 What Is Voluntary Movement? 20.2 Feedforward and Feedback Control 20.3 Servo Control 20.4 Servo Hypothesis 20.5 ?-? Coactivation 20.6 Voluntary Activation of Muscles 20.7 Equilibrium-Point Hypothesis Chapter 21. General Issues of Motor Control 21.1 Force Control 21.2 Engrams and the Generalized Motor Program 21.3 Internal Models 21.4 Equilibrium-Point Hypothesis: Main Ideas 21.5 Equilibrium-Point Hypothesis: Subtle Details 21.6 Dynamic Systems Approach Chapter 22. Motor Synergies 22.1 The Problem of Motor Redundancy 22.2 Optimization Approaches 22.3 Bernstein's Level of Synergies 22.4 Uniting Muscles Into Groups 22.5 Principle of Abundance 22.6 Ensuring Stability of Movements 22.7 Uncontrolled Manifold Hypothesis Chapter 23. Patterns of Single-Joint Movements 23.1 Isotonic Movements and Isometric Contractions 23.2 Task Parameters and Performance Variables 23.3 Kinematic Patterns During Single-Joint Isotonic Movements 23.4 EMG Patterns During Single-Joint Isotonic Movements 23.5 EMG Patterns During Single-Joint Isometric Contractions 23.6 Dual-Strategy Hypothesis 23.7 Single-Joint Movements Within the Equilibrium-Point Hypothesis Chapter 24. Multijoint Movement 24.1 Two Issues With Controlling Natural Reaching Movements 24.2 Interjoint Reflexes 24.3 Multijoint Coordination by the Spinal Cord 24.4 Supraspinal Mechanisms 24.5 Neural Control Variables for Multijoint Movements 24.6 Equilibrium-Trajectory Hypothesis 24.7 Hierarchical Control With Spatial Referent Coordinates 24.8 Multijoint Synergies Chapter 25. Postural Control 25.1 Vertical Posture 25.2 Postural Sway 25.3 Role of the Vestibular System 25.4 Role of Vision 25.5 Role of Proprioception 25.6 Anticipatory Postural Adjustments 25.7 Corrective Postural Reactions 25.8 Postural Synergies Chapter 26. Locomotion 26.1 Two Approaches to Locomotion 26.2 Central Pattern Generator 26.3 Locomotor Centers 26.4 Spinal Locomotion 26.5 Spinal Control of Locomotion in Humans 26.6 Gait Patterns 26.7 Dynamic Pattern Generation 26.8 Step Initiation 26.9 Corrective Stumbling Reaction Chapter 27. Prehension 27.1 Hand Joints and Muscles 27.2 Cortical Representations of the Hand 27.3 Indices of Finger Interaction 27.4 Multifinger Synergies in Pressing Tasks 27.5 Grasping 27.6 Prehension Synergies and Principle of Superposition Problems for Part V Part VI. Sensorimotor Integration for Perception and Action Chapter 28. Kinesthetic Perception 28.1 Sensation and Perception 28.2 Weber-Fechner Law 28.3 Ambiguity of Sensory Information 28.4 Afferent and Efferent Components of Perception 28.5 Vibration-Induced Kinesthetic Illusions 28.6 Distorted Efferent Copy and Preconceptions 28.7 Sense of Effort 28.8 Stability of Percepts 28.9 Perception-Action Coupling Chapter 29. Multisensory Integration 29.1 Spatial Multisensory Integration for Limb Motor Control 29.2 Temporal Multisensory Integration for Limb Motor Control 29.3 Coordinate Frames for Limb Motor Control 29.4 Postural Balance and Motion Perception 29.5 Neural Correlates of Multisensory Integration Chapter 30. Visual Perception and Action 30.1 Two Visual Streams 30.2 Magnocellular and Parvocellular Ganglion Cells and Streams 30.3 Motion Processing in the Cortex 30.4 Color, Object, and Face Recognition in the Ventral Stream 30.5 Roles of Dual Streams for Reach-to-Grasp Movements 30.6 Neural Structures Involved in Oculomotor Control 30.7 Frontoparietal Cortical Areas Involved in Eye-Hand Coordination 30.8 Eye and Hand Coordination for Movements Starting From Rest 30.9 Eye and Hand Coordination During Movement 30.10 Eye and Hand Coordination While Intercepting Moving Targets Problems for Part VI Part VII. Emerging, Evolving, and Adapting Movements Chapter 31. Fatigue 31.1 Fatigue and Its Contributors 31.2 Muscular Mechanisms of Fatigue 31.3 Spinal Mechanisms of Fatigue 31.4 Supraspinal Mechanisms of Fatigue 31.5 Adaptive Changes During Fatigue 31.6 Abnormal Fatigue Chapter 32. Effects of Aging 32.1 General Features of Movements in Elderly Persons 32.2 Changes in Muscles and Motor Units 32.3 Muscle Reflexes in Elderly Persons 32.4 Changes in Sensory Function 32.5 Muscle Activation Patterns During Fast Movements 32.6 Changes in Posture and Gait 32.7 Hand Function in Elderly Persons 32.8 Changes in Motor Synergies 32.9 Adaptive Changes in Motor Patterns 32.10 Effects of Training Chapter 33. Typical and Atypical Development 33.1 Humans at Birth 33.2 Motor Milestones During Typical Development 33.3 Exploration and Emergent Motor Patterns 33.4 Development of Motor Synergies 33.5 Down Syndrome 33.6 Effects of Practice in People with Down Syndrome 33.7 Autism 33.8 Developmental Coordination Disorder Chapter 34. Motor Learning 34.1 Adaptation, Learning, and Memory 34.2 Muscle Memory 34.3 Habituation of Reflexes 34.4 Conditioned Reflexes 34.5 Operant Conditioning and Learning Spinal Reflexes 34.6 Short-Term and Long-Term Memory 34.7 Adaptation to Unusual Force Fields 34.8 Motor Skills 34.9 Learning Motor Synergies 34.10 Stages in Motor Learning 34.11 Effects of Practice on Cortical Representations Problems for Part VII Part VIII. Motor Disorders Chapter 35. Peripheral Muscular and Neurological Disorders 35.1 Myopathies and Neuropathies 35.2 Muscular Dystrophies 35.3 Continuous Muscle Fiber Activity Syndromes 35.4 Myasthenia Gravis 35.5 Mononeuropathies 35.6 Multiple Mononeuropathies 35.7 Polyneuropathies 35.8 Radiculopathies Chapter 36. Spinal Cord Injury and Spasticity 36.1 Consequences of Spinal Cord Injury 36.2 Signs and Symptoms of Spasticity 36.3 Possible Mechanisms of Spasticity 36.4 Defining Muscle Tone 36.5 Treatment of Spasticity Chapter 37. Disorders Involving the Basal Ganglia 37.1 Clinical Features of Parkinson's Disease 37.2 Voluntary Movements in Parkinson's Disease 37.3 Vertical Posture and Locomotion in Parkinson's Disease 37.4 Motor Synergies in Parkinson's Disease 37.5 Treatment of Parkinson's Disease 37.6 Huntington's Chorea 37.7 Hemiballismus 37.8 Dystonia 37.9 Tardive Dyskinesia Chapter 38. Cerebellar Disorders 38.1 Consequences of Cerebellar Injuries in Animals 38.2 Consequences of Cerebellar Disorders in Humans 38.3 Abnormalities of Stance and Gait 38.4 Voluntary Movements in Cerebellar Disorders 38.5 Cerebellar Tremor 38.6 Ataxias 38.7 Changes in Motor Synergies 38.8 Cerebellar Cognitive Affective Syndrome Chapter 39. Cortical Disorders 39.1 Consequences of Lesions of Different Cortical Lobes 39.2 Stroke 39.3 Myoclonus 39.4 Tics 39.5 Tourette Syndrome 39.6 Williams Syndrome Chapter 40. Systemic Disorders 40.1 Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis 40.2 Multiple Sclerosis 40.3 Multisystem Atrophy 40.4 Essential Tremor 40.5 Cerebral Palsy 40.6 Wilson's Disease Chapter 41. Motor Rehabilitation 41.1 Do "Normal Movements" Exist? 41.2 Changes in CNS Priorities 41.3 Neural Plasticity 41.4 Adaptive Changes in Motor Patterns 41.5 Consequences of Amputation 41.6 Functional Electrical Stimulation 41.7 Constraint-Induced and Discomfort-Induced Therapies 41.8 Brain-Computer Interface 41.9 Practical Considerations Problems for Part VIII