Philosophy

Acknowledgments xi

PART ONE WHAT CAN WE KNOW? 1

Introduction 3

1 From Meditations on First Philosophy 6
RENE DESCARTES

2 From An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding 34
DAVID HUME

3 Cartesian Skepticism and Inference to the Best Explanation 64
JONATHAN VOGEL

4 From Science as Social Knowledge 71
HELEN LONGINO

5 The ‘Maleness’ of Reason 78
GENEVIEVE LLOYD

6 The Ethics of Belief 83
WILLIAM CLIFFORD

7 It is Wrong, Everywhere, Always, and for Anyone, to Believe Anything upon Insufficient Evidence 87
PETER VAN INWAGEN

Epistemology: Suggestions for Further Reading 99

PART TWO WHAT CAN WE KNOW ABOUT THE NATURE AND EXISTENCE OF GOD? 101

Introduction 103

8 From Proslogium 106
ST. ANSELM

9 In Behalf of the Fool: An Answer to the Argument of Anselm in the Proslogium 107
GAUNILO

10 The Ontological Argument 111
WILLIAM L. ROWE

11 The Cosmological Argument 123
WILLIAM L. ROWE

12 From Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion 133
DAVID HUME

13 The Argument from Design 141
R. G. SWINBURNE

14 The Wager 151
BLAISE PASCAL

15 The Recombinant DNA Debate: A Difficulty for Pascalian-Style Wagering 154
STEPHEN P. STICH

16 A Central Theistic Argument 155
GEORGE SCHLESINGER

17 Evil and Omnipotence 167
J. L. MACKIE

18 The Problem of Evil 176
ELEONORE STUMP

19 Male-Chauvinist Religion 190
DEBORAH MATHIEU

20 Divine Racism: A Philosophical and Theological Analysis 201
WILLIAM R. JONES

Religion: Suggestions for Further Reading 212

PART THREE ARE WE EVER FREE? 213

Introduction 215

21 From The System of Nature 218
PAUL HOLBACH

22 Freedom and Necessity 225
A. J. AYER

23 Human Freedom and the Self 231
RODERICK M. CHISHOLM

24 Alternate Possibilities and Moral Responsibility 239
HARRY G. FRANKFURT

25 How to Complete the Compatibilist Account of Free Action 246
JAMES P. STERBA AND JANET A. KOURANY

26 Living without Free Will: The Case for Hard Incompatibilism 257
DERK PEREBOOM

27 Metaethics, Metaphilosophy, and Free Will Subjectivism 267
RICHARD DOUBLE

Freedom and Determinism: Suggestions for Further Reading 276

PART FOUR DOES OUR EXISTENCE HAVE A MEANING OR PURPOSE? 277

Introduction 279

28 From My Confession 281
LEO TOLSTOY

29 The Absurdity of Life without God 288
WILLIAM LANE CRAIG

30 On the Vanity of Existence 302
ARTHUR SCHOPENHAUER

31 An Absurd Reasoning 305
ALBERT CAMUS

32 Existentialism Is a Humanism 313
JEAN-PAUL SARTRE

33 The Absurd 322
THOMAS NAGEL

34 What Makes Life Worth Living? 330
OWEN FLANAGAN

35 The Meaning of Life 337
JOHN KEKES

36 Tolstoi and the Meaning of Life 353
ANTHONY FLEW

The Meaning of Life: Suggestions for Further Reading 361

PART FIVE HOW SHOULD WE LIVE? 363

Introduction 365

37 Morality as Good in Itself 367
PLATO

38 The Problem of Rationality: Is Morality Rationally Required? 374
JAMES P. STERBA

39 From Utilitarianism 383
JOHN STUART MILL

40 Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals 399
IMMANUEL KANT

41 From Two Treatises of Government 414
JOHN LOCKE

42 From A Theory of Justice 421
JOHN RAWLS

43 Distributive Justice 445
ROBERT NOZICK

44 Gender Inequality and Cultural Difference 455
SUSAN MOLLER OKIN

45 Race/Gender and the Ethics of Difference 470
JANE FLAX

46 A Response to Jane Flax 478
SUSAN MOLLER OKIN

47 Equality, Discrimination and Preferential Treatment 482
BERNARD R. BOXILL

48 All Animals Are Equal . . . 490
PETER SINGER

49 The Ethics of Respect for Nature 505
PAUL W. TAYLOR

Ethics: Suggestions for Further Reading 519

Index 520