Introduction | p. 1 |
Generalities on Pixel Detectors | p. 1 |
Motivations for Pixel Detectors in Particle Physics | p. 2 |
Working Principle and Operating Characteristics of Segmented Silicon Detectors | p. 5 |
Hybrid Pixel Detectors | p. 9 |
Monolithic Pixel Detectors | p. 12 |
Evolution of Pixel Detectors in Particle Physics | p. 13 |
The First Pixel Detectors and Their Use in Experiments | p. 16 |
Other Applications | p. 23 |
The Sensor | p. 25 |
Introduction | p. 25 |
Device Physics and Fundamental Sensor Properties | p. 26 |
Carrier Concentration | p. 26 |
Charge Generation and Recombination in Silicon | p. 29 |
Transport of Charge Carriers | p. 37 |
The pn-Junction | p. 40 |
Surface Barrier | p. 44 |
Metal Oxide Semiconductor Structure | p. 46 |
Punch Through | p. 48 |
Pixel Sensors and Their Properties | p. 50 |
Different Types of Silicon Sensors | p. 50 |
Leakage Current and Maximum Operation Voltage | p. 51 |
Full Depletion Voltage and Substrate Doping | p. 53 |
Pixel Capacitance | p. 57 |
Charge Motion and Signal Formation | p. 59 |
Spatial Resolution | p. 61 |
Radiation Hardness | p. 67 |
Radiation-Induced Effects on Silicon | p. 68 |
Bulk Damage | p. 68 |
Surface Effects | p. 80 |
Sensor Concepts | p. 81 |
Overview of Sensor Types | p. 82 |
p[superscript +] in n: Low-Cost Solution for Applications in a Low- or Medium-Radiation Environment | p. 85 |
n[superscript +] in n: Solution for Applications in a High-Radiation Environment | p. 97 |
Processing of Silicon Wafers | p. 110 |
Production and Cleaning of Silicon | p. 111 |
Thermal Oxidation | p. 113 |
Layer Deposition | p. 113 |
Photolithographic Steps | p. 114 |
Etching | p. 115 |
Doping | p. 116 |
Metallization | p. 118 |
Example of a Process Sequence | p. 118 |
Detector Materials Other Than Silicon | p. 121 |
Gallium Arsenide | p. 122 |
CdTe and CdZnTe | p. 124 |
Diamond | p. 125 |
The Front-End Electronics | p. 129 |
Introduction | p. 129 |
Generic Pixel Chip | p. 130 |
Simple Sensor Model | p. 133 |
Generic PUC | p. 135 |
Module Controller Chips | p. 143 |
Design Aspects | p. 144 |
Typical Specifications | p. 145 |
Radiation-Tolerant Design | p. 154 |
Cross Talk | p. 157 |
Testability and Ease of Operation | p. 160 |
Analog Signal Processing | p. 161 |
Charge Amplification | p. 162 |
Feedback and Leakage Compensation | p. 163 |
Hit Discrimination | p. 168 |
Threshold Trim | p. 170 |
Noise in a Simple FET Amplifier | p. 171 |
Noise in Charge Amplifier/Shaper Combination | p. 178 |
FET Preamplifer | p. 183 |
Bipolar Amplifier | p. 184 |
Summary | p. 186 |
Readout Architectures | p. 187 |
Chips Without Data Buffering | p. 188 |
Chips with Zero Suppression and Data Buffering | p. 188 |
Counting Chips | p. 197 |
Integration and System Aspects | p. 201 |
Introduction | p. 201 |
Modules | p. 202 |
Bump Bonding | p. 203 |
Solder Bumping and Bonding Process | p. 204 |
Indium Bump-Bonding Process | p. 206 |
Gold-Stud Bump-Bonding Process | p. 210 |
Quality Control of Bump-Bonded Assemblies | p. 212 |
Rework of Bump-Bonded Assemblies | p. 213 |
Thinning of Electronics Wafers | p. 214 |
"Dressing" the Modules | p. 214 |
Flex Hybrid | p. 215 |
Multichip Module Deposited | p. 216 |
Support Mechanics and Cooling | p. 218 |
Mechanical Supports | p. 219 |
Cooling | p. 220 |
Power and Signal Interconnect in High-Luminosity Colliders | p. 222 |
Operation in High-Radiation Environment | p. 223 |
Pixel Detector Applications | p. 225 |
Pixel Detectors for High-Luminosity Collider Experiments | p. 225 |
Large Systems in Construction | p. 231 |
ATLAS | p. 232 |
CMS | p. 237 |
ALICE | p. 241 |
BTeV | p. 243 |
Pixel Detectors for Imaging Applications | p. 246 |
Pixel Imaging Systems in Operation | p. 250 |
Counting Pixels for Radiography | p. 251 |
Pixel Detectors for Protein Crystallography with Synchrotron Radiation | p. 254 |
Autoradiography with Pixel Detectors | p. 256 |
Trends and New Developments for Pixel Detectors | p. 261 |
Introduction | p. 261 |
Limitations and Prospects of the Hybrid Pixel Technology | p. 262 |
MCM-D Integration | p. 263 |
Interleaved Hybrid Pixels | p. 265 |
Active Edge Three-Dimensional Silicon Pixel Detectors | p. 267 |
Monolithic and Semimonolithic Pixel Detectors | p. 269 |
Monolithic Pixels on Bulk Silicon | p. 271 |
Monolithic CMOS Pixels | p. 272 |
Monolithic SOI Pixels | p. 276 |
Amorphous Silicon above CMOS Pixel Electronics | p. 277 |
DEPFET Pixels | p. 278 |
Glossary | p. 283 |
References | p. 289 |
Index | p. 301 |
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