At a Glance
448 Pages
Unabridged
23.37 x 15.75 x 2.79
Hardcover
$370.25
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Based on the classic Radar Range-Performance Analysis from 1980, this practical
volume extends that work to ensure applicability of radar equations to
the design and analysis of modern radars. This unique book helps engineers
identify what information on the radar and its environment is needed to predict
detection range. Moreover, it provides equations and data needed to improve
the accuracy of range calculations. Professionals find detailed information on
propagation effects and methods of range calculation in environments that
include clutter, jamming, and thermal noise, as well as loss factors that reduce
radar performance. This invaluable book is supported with nearly 200 illustrations
and over 430 equations.
Preface | p. xv |
Development of the Radar Equation | p. 1 |
Radar Equation Fundamentals | p. 1 |
Maximum Available Signal-to-Noise Ratio | p. 2 |
Minimum Required Signal-to-Noise Ratio | p. 4 |
Maximum Detection Range for Pulsed Radar | p. 5 |
The Original Radar Equation | p. 5 |
Blake's Radar Equation for Pulsed Radar | p. 6 |
Significance of Terms in Blake's Equation | p. 7 |
Methods of Solving for Range | p. 9 |
Advantages of the Blake Chart | p. 11 |
Blake's Coherent Radar Equation | p. 11 |
Blake's Bistatic Range Equation | p. 12 |
Other Forms of the Radar Equation | p. 13 |
Hall's Radar Equations | p. 13 |
Barton's Radar Equations | p. 14 |
Avoiding Pitfalls in Range Calculation | p. 16 |
System Noise Temperature Ts | p. 16 |
Use of Signal-to-Noise Energy Ratio | p. 17 |
Use of Average Power | p. 18 |
Bandwidth Correction and Matching Factors | p. 18 |
Detectability Factors for Arbitrary Targets | p. 18 |
Pattern-Propagation Factor | p. 19 |
Loss Factors | p. 19 |
Summary of Pitfalls in Range Calculation | p. 20 |
Radar Equation for Modern Radar Systems | p. 20 |
Factors Requiring Modifications to the Radar Equation | p. 20 |
Equations Applicable to Modern Radars | p. 23 |
Method of Calculating Detection Range | p. 24 |
Vertical Coverage Charts | p. 27 |
Required Probability of Detection | p. 28 |
Summary of Radar Equation Development | p. 30 |
References | p. 30 |
The Search Radar Equation | p. 33 |
Derivation of the Search Radar Equation | p. 34 |
Search Sectors for Air Surveillance | p. 37 |
Elevation Coverage in 2-D Surveillance | p. 37 |
Fan-Beam Pattern for 2-D Air Surveillance | p. 38 |
Cosecant-Squared Pattern for 2-D Surveillance | p. 39 |
Coverage to Constant Altitude | p. 40 |
Enhanced Upper Coverage for 2-D Surveillance | p. 40 |
Reflector Antenna design for 2-D Surveillance Radar | p. 41 |
Array Antennas for 2-D Surveillance Radar | p. 41 |
Example of Required Power-Aperture Product for 2-D Radar | p. 42 |
Three-Dimensional Air Surveillance | p. 43 |
Stacked-Beam 3-D Surveillance Radar | p. 43 |
Scanning-beam 3-D Surveillance Radars | p. 43 |
Search Losses for 3-D Surveillance Radar | p. 44 |
Surveillance with Multifunction Array Radar | p. 44 |
Example of MFAR Search Sectors | p. 45 |
Advantages and Disadvantages of MFAR Search | p. 46 |
Example of Search Radar Equation for MFAR | p. 47 |
The Search Fence | p. 48 |
Search Sector for the Fence | p. 49 |
Example ICBM Fence | p. 50 |
Search Losses | p. 51 |
Reduction in Available Energy Ratio | p. 51 |
Increase in Required Energy Ratio | p. 52 |
Summary of Losses | p. 52 |
References | p. 54 |
Radar Equations for Clutter and Jamming | p. 55 |
Signal-to-interference Ratio | p. 55 |
Clutter Effect on Detection Range | p. 57 |
Range-Ambiguous Clutter | p. 57 |
Types of Radar Waveforms | p. 58 |
Clutter Detectability Factor | p. 59 |
Effective Spectral Density of Clutter | p. 61 |
Detection Range with Clutter | p. 62 |
Detection in Surface Clutter | p. 62 |
Clutter from a Flat Surface | p. 62 |
Surface Clutter from the Spherical Earth | p. 65 |
Surface Clutter Cross Section | p. 66 |
Input Energy of Surface Clutter | p. 68 |
Detection Range of Surface-Based CW and HPRF Radars | p. 73 |
Summary of Detection in Surface Clutter | p. 76 |
Detection in Volume Clutter | p. 77 |
Geometry of Volume Clutter | p. 77 |
Volume Clutter Cross Section | p. 78 |
Volume Clutter Energy | p. 79 |
Volume Clutter Detectability Factor | p. 80 |
Detection Range in Volume Clutter and Noise | p. 80 |
Volume Clutter in CW and PD Radars | p. 82 |
Summary of Detection in Volume Clutter | p. 87 |
Effects of Discrete Clutter | p. 88 |
Effect of False Alarms | p. 89 |
Required Noise False-Alarm Probability | p. 89 |
Requirements for Rejection of Discrete Clutter | p. 90 |
Summary of Discrete Clutter Effects | p. 91 |
Sidelobe Clutter | p. 91 |
Surface Clutter in Sidelobes | p. 91 |
Volume Clutter in Sidelobes. | p. 93 |
Detection in Noise Jamming | p. 94 |
Objective and Methods of Noise Jamming | p. 94 |
Radar Equations for Noise Jamming | p. 96 |
Examples of Noise Jamming | p. 98 |
Deceptive Jamming | p. 101 |
Range Equations for Deceptive Jamming | p. 102 |
Summary of Detection in Jamming | p. 106 |
Range with Noise Jamming | p. 106 |
Deceptive Jammer Equations | p. 106 |
Detection in Combined Interference | p. 106 |
References | p. 107 |
Detection Theory | p. 109 |
Background | p. 109 |
Steady-Target Detectability Factor | p. 110 |
Exact Steady-Target Detection Probability | p. 111 |
Threshold Level | p. 111 |
Exact Steady-Target Detectability Factor | p. 114 |
Exact Single-Pulse, Steady-Target Detectability Factor | p. 114 |
Approximations for Single-Pulse, Steady-Target Detectability Factor | p. 115 |
Approximations for n-Pulse, Steady-Target Detectability Factor | p. 116 |
Detectability Factors for Fluctuating Targets | p. 118 |
Generalized Chi-Square Target Fluctuation Model | p. 118 |
Detection of Signals with Chi-Square Statistics | p. 119 |
Swerling Case 1 | p. 120 |
Swerling Case 2 | p. 124 |
Swerling Case 3 | p. 125 |
Swerling Case 4 | p. 127 |
Equations Based on Detector Loss | p. 127 |
Coherent Detection | p. 127 |
Envelope Detection and Detector Loss | p. 129 |
Integration Loss | p. 129 |
Integration Gain | p. 131 |
Fluctuation Loss | p. 132 |
Case 1 Detectability Factor | p. 133 |
Detectability Factors for Other Fluctuating Targets | p. 134 |
Diversity in Radar | p. 134 |
Diversity Gain | p. 134 |
Signal and Target Models with Diversity | p. 135 |
Visibility Factor | p. 138 |
Summary of Detection Theory | p. 140 |
References | p. 141 |
Beamshape Loss | p. 143 |
Background | p. 143 |
Definition of Beamshape Loss | p. 143 |
Sampling in Angle Space | p. 144 |
Literature on Beamshape Loss | p. 145 |
Beamshape Loss with Dense Sampling | p. 146 |
Simple Beamshape Loss Model | p. 146 |
Antenna Patterns | p. 147 |
Beamshape Loss for Different Patterns | p. 148 |
Sparse Sampling in 1-D Scan | p. 149 |
Method of Calculation for 1-D Scan | p. 149 |
Steady Target Beamshape Loss for 1-D Scan | p. 151 |
Case 1 Beamshape Loss for 1-D Scan | p. 153 |
Case 2 Beamshape Loss for 1-D Scan | p. 155 |
Beamshape Loss Used in Search Radar Equation for 1-D Scan | p. 158 |
Sparse Sampling in 2-D Raster Scan | p. 160 |
Method of Calculation for 2-D Scan | p. 162 |
Steady Target Beamshape Loss for 2-D Scan | p. 162 |
Case 1 Beamshape Loss for 2-D Scan | p. 163 |
Case 2 Beamshape Loss for 2-D Scan | p. 165 |
Diversity Target Beamshape Loss for 2-D Scan | p. 168 |
Beamshape Loss in the Search Radar Equation for 2-D Raster Scan | p. 171 |
Sparse Sampling Using a Triangular Grid | p. 174 |
Method of Calculation for Triangular Grid | p. 174 |
Steady Target Beamshape Loss for Triangular Grid | p. 175 |
Case 1 Beamshape Loss for Triangular Grid | p. 175 |
Case 2 Beamshape Loss for Triangular Grid | p. 176 |
Diversity Target Beamshape Loss for Triangular Grid | p. 178 |
Beamshape Loss in Search Radar Equation for Triangular Grid | p. 180 |
Summary of Beamshape Loss | p. 181 |
Beamshape Loss for Dense Sampling | p. 181 |
Beamshape Loss for Sparse Sampling | p. 182 |
Processing Methods | p. 184 |
Net Beamshape Loss for the Search Radar Equation | p. 185 |
Beamshape Loss for Unequally Spaced 2-D Scan | p. 186 |
References | p. 186 |
Appendix 5A Analytical Approximations for Beamshape Loss | p. 188 |
1-D Beamshape Loss | p. 188 |
2-D Beamshape Loss with Rectangular Grid | p. 189 |
2-D Beamshape Loss with Triangular Grid | p. 192 |
System Noise Temperature | p. 197 |
Noise in the Radar Bands | p. 197 |
Noise Spectral Density | p. 197 |
Noise Statistics | p. 198 |
Sources of Noise in Radar Reception | p. 200 |
Antenna Noise Temperature | p. 201 |
Sources of Antenna Noise Temperature | p. 201 |
Sky Noise Temperature | p. 204 |
Noise Temperature from the Surface | p. 209 |
Noise Temperature from Antenna Ohmic Loss | p. 211 |
Noise Temperature from Antenna Mismatch | p. 212 |
Approximation for Antenna Noise Temperature | p. 215 |
Receiving Line Temperature | p. 217 |
Receiver Noise Temperature | p. 217 |
Noise in Cascaded Receiver Stages | p. 217 |
Input and Output Levels | p. 219 |
Quantizing Noise | p. 220 |
Summary of Receiving System Noise | p. 221 |
Thermal Noise Dependence on Carrier Frequency | p. 221 |
Applicability of Blake's Method | p. 222 |
Refined Method for Modem Radar | p. 222 |
Receiver and Quantization Noise Temperature | p. 223 |
References | p. 223 |
Atmospheric Effects | p. 225 |
Tropospheric Refraction | p. 225 |
Refractive Index of Air | p. 226 |
Standard Atmosphere | p. 227 |
Inclusion of Water Vapor | p. 228 |
Vertical Profile of Refractivity | p. 229 |
Ray Paths in the Troposphere | p. 231 |
Attenuation in the Troposphere | p. 232 |
Sea-Level Attenuation Coefficients of Atmospheric Gases | p. 233 |
Variation of Attenuation Coefficients with Altitude | p. 237 |
Attenuation Through the Troposphere | p. 237 |
Attenuation to Ranged | p. 238 |
Attenuation for Dry and Moist Atmospheres | p. 244 |
Attenuation from Precipitation | p. 246 |
Rain Attenuation Coefficient at 293K | p. 246 |
Temperature Dependence of Rain Attenuation | p. 247 |
Rainfall Rate Statistics | p. 249 |
Attenuation in Snow | p. 251 |
Attenuation in Clouds | p. 253 |
Weather Effects on System Noise Temperature | p. 255 |
Tropospheric Lens Loss | p. 255 |
Ionospheric Effects | p. 257 |
Geometry of Ray in Ionosphere | p. 258 |
Ionospheric Structure | p. 258 |
Total Electron Count | p. 260 |
Faraday Rotation | p. 260 |
Dispersion Across Signal Spectrum | p. 264 |
Summary of Atmospheric Effects | p. 269 |
References | p. 270 |
The Pattern-Propagation Factor | p. 273 |
Equations for the F-Factor | p. 274 |
Derivation of the F-Factor | p. 274 |
Application of the F-Factor | p. 276 |
Geometrical Models of the Ray Paths | p. 277 |
Method 1: Flat-Earth Approximation for Distant Target | p. 278 |
Method 2: Flat Earth Approximation with Target at Arbitrary Range | p. 279 |
Method 3: First-Order Approximation for Spherical Earth | p. 280 |
Method 4: Approximation for Spherical Earth with Distant Target R | p. 282 |
Method 5: Approximation for Spherical Earth with Target at Arbitrary Range | p. 283 |
Method 6: Exact Expressions for Spherical Earth with Target at Arbitrary Range | p. 285 |
Comparison of Approximate Methods | p. 286 |
Reflection Coefficient | p. 287 |
Fresnel Reflection Coefficient | p. 288 |
Reflection from Rough Surfaces | p. 292 |
Land Surfaces with Vegetation | p. 295 |
The Divergence Factor | p. 295 |
Diffraction | p. 296 |
Smooth-Sphere Diffraction | p. 296 |
Knife-Edge Diffraction | p. 299 |
The Interference Region | p. 302 |
The Intermediate Region | p. 303 |
F-Factor as a Function of Range | p. 303 |
F-Factor as a Function of Altitude | p. 305 |
Vertical-Plane Coverage Charts | p. 306 |
Summary of Propagation Factors | p. 309 |
References | p. 310 |
Clutter and Signal Processing | p. 311 |
Modes of Surface Clutter | p. 311 |
Clutter Cross Section and Reflectivity | p. 311 |
Surface Clutter Pattern-Propagation Factor | p. 313 |
Spectral Properties of Surface Clutter | p. 318 |
Amplitude Distributions of Surface Clutter | p. 321 |
Models of Sea Clutter | p. 323 |
Physical Properties of the Sea Surface | p. 323 |
Reflectivity of Sea Clutter | p. 324 |
Power Spectrum of Sea Clutter | p. 326 |
Amplitude Distribution of Sea Clutter | p. 327 |
Models of Land Clutter | p. 327 |
Reflectivity of Land Clutter | p. 329 |
Power Spectrum of Land Clutter | p. 331 |
Amplitude Distribution of Land Clutter | p. 332 |
Discrete Clutter | p. 333 |
Discrete Land Features | p. 333 |
Birds and Insects | p. 333 |
Land Vehicles | p. 334 |
Wind Turbines | p. 335 |
Models of Volume Clutter | p. 335 |
Volume Clutter Cross Section and Reflectivity | p. 336 |
Volume Clutter Pattern-Propagation Factor | p. 337 |
Spectral Properties of Volume Clutter | p. 338 |
Amplitude Distribution of Volume Clutter | p. 340 |
Precipitation Clutter Models | p. 340 |
Chaff Models | p. 343 |
Clutter Improvement Factor | p. 344 |
Coherent MTI improvement Factors | p. 345 |
Noncoherent MTI Improvement Factors | p. 347 |
Other MTI Considerations | p. 347 |
Pulsed Doppler Processing | p. 348 |
Clutter Maps | p. 352 |
Summary of Clutter and Signal Processing | p. 352 |
References | p. 353 |
Loss Factors in the Radar Equation | p. 357 |
Reduction in Received Signal Energy | p. 358 |
Terms Specified in the Radar Equation | p. 358 |
Components of Range-Dependent Response Factor Frdr | p. 361 |
Losses Included in System Noise Temperature 364 | |
Losses in Search Radar Equation | p. 364 |
Losses Included in Antenna Gain | p. 367 |
Increases in Required Signal Energy | p. 370 |
Statistical Losses | p. 370 |
Losses in Basic Detectability Factor | p. 374 |
Matching and Bandwidth Losses | p. 375 |
Beamshape Loss Lp | p. 378 |
Signal Processing Losses | p. 379 |
Losses in Clutter Detectability Factor | p. 388 |
Losses in Visual Detection | p. 394 |
Losses in the Visibility Factor | p. 394 |
Collapsing Loss on the Display | p. 394 |
Bandwidth Correction Factor Cb | p. 395 |
Operator Loss Lo | p. 395 |
Summary of Loss Factors | p. 396 |
References | p. 397 |
List of Symbols | p. 399 |
Appendix Analysis Tools on DVD | p. 411 |
About the Author | p. 419 |
Index | p. 421 |
Table of Contents provided by Ingram. All Rights Reserved. |
ISBN: 9781608075218
ISBN-10: 1608075214
Series: Artech House Radar
Published: 30th November 2012
Format: Hardcover
Language: English
Number of Pages: 448
Audience: Professional and Scholarly
Publisher: ARTECH HOUSE INC
Country of Publication: US
Edition Type: Unabridged
Dimensions (cm): 23.37 x 15.75 x 2.79
Weight (kg): 0.64
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