List of Contributors xxv
Foreword xxxi
Preface xxxii
Biographies xxxiii
1 Emerging and Re-Emerging Infectious Diseases of the Decade: An Overview 1
Ranjita Shegokar, Seth K. Amponsah, and Yashwant V. Pathak
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Infectious Diseases and the Economy 1
1.3 The Main Factors Involved in EIDs and REIDs 2
1.4 Prevention of EIDs and REIDs 3
1.5 Infectious Diseases of the Last Decades 4
1.6 Conclusion 6
2 Recent Trends and Possible Future Trajectory of COVID-19 7
Ismaila Adams, Ofosua Adi-Dako, Eugene Boafo, Emmanuel K. Ofori, and Seth K. Amponsah
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 Overview of COVID-19 8
2.3 Current State of the Pandemic 10
2.4 Epidemiological Projections and Modeling 11
2.5 Potential Scenarios for the Future 12
2.6 Impact of COVID-19 on Public Health and Healthcare Systems 13
2.7 Socioeconomic and Behavioral Considerations 14
2.8 Global Preparedness and Response 15
2.9 Conclusion and Recommendations 16
3 Mpox: New Challenges with the Disease 20
Julia Wang, Lynn Nguyen, Vernon Volante, Jeannez Daniel, and Charles Preuss
3.1 History of Mpox virus 20
3.2 Characteristics 20
3.3 Epidemiology 20
3.4 Transmission 21
3.5 Pathogenicity 22
3.6 Risk Factors 23
3.7 Diagnostic Testing 24
3.8 Symptoms 24
3.9 Long-Term Effects and Complications 25
3.10 Vaccinations 26
3.11 Epidemic Management 27
3.12 Pharmacology 28
3.13 Future Implications 29
3.14 Conclusion 29
4 Ebola Virus Disease: Transmission Dynamics and Management 31
Kshama Patel, Jasmine Primus, Carina Copley, and Yashwant V. Pathak
4.1 Introduction 31
4.2 Transmission Dynamics 33
4.3 Disease Management 34
4.4 Morbidity 36
4.5 Intersections 37
4.6 Conclusion 39
5 Avian Influenza Outbreaks over the Last Decade: An Analytical Review and Containment Strategies 42
Abdullah Abdelkawi, Zaineb Zinoune, Aliyah Slim, and Yashwant V. Pathak
5.1 Background 42
5.2 Causative Microorganisms 43
5.3 Strategies for Containment 45
5.4 Ongoing Investigations and Prospective Look into Avian Influenza 46
6 Swine Flu: Current Status and Challenges 50
Lucy Mohapatra, Geeta Patel, Alok S. Tripathi, Alka, Deepak Mishra, Sambit K. Parida, Mohammad Yasir, and Rahul K. Maurya
6.1 Introduction 50
6.2 Current Status – Swine Flu 51
6.3 Pathogenesis Related to Swine Flu 53
6.4 Diagnosis 55
6.5 Treatment and Management of Swine Flu 57
6.6 Challenges During Combating Swine Flu 58
6.7 Conclusion 60
7 Zika Virus Disease: An Emerging Global Threat 66
Ofosua Adi-Dako, Awo A. Kwapong, and Selorme Adukpo
7.1 Introduction 66
7.2 Epidemiology of the Zika Virus Infection 66
7.3 Infection and Pathophysiology 67
7.4 Immune Response and Vaccine 68
7.5 Zika Virus Infection Diagnosis and Management 69
7.6 Development of Antiviral Therapeutic Drug against Zika Virus 69
7.7 The Way Forward 70
8 Current Perspectives in Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever 72
Manish P. Patel, Vaishnavi M. Oza, Hemangi B. Tanna, Avinash D. Khadela, Praful D. Bharadia, and Jayvadan K. Patel
8.1 Introduction 72
8.2 Life Cycle of Dengue Mosquitoes 74
8.3 Life Cycle of Dengue Virus 74
8.4 Risk Factors Responsible for Dengue Fever 75
8.5 Pathophysiology of Dengue Fever 75
8.6 Clinical Manifestation 76
8.7 Diagnosis of Dengue Fever 78
8.8 Prevention of Disease 80
8.9 Management of Dengue Disease 83
8.10 Conclusion 85
9 West Nile Virus: Evolutionary Dynamics, Advances in Diagnostics, and Therapeutic Interventions 87
Bibhuti B. Kakoti, Lawandashisha Nongrang, Chinmoyee Borah, Monali Lahiri, Mainak Ghosh, and Ankit Choudhary
9.1 Introduction 87
9.2 Geographical Distribution 88
9.3 The Virus and its Genome 89
9.4 Etiology and Pathogenesis 90
9.5 Relationship Between Host-Pathogen in West Nile Virus Infection 92
9.6 Clinical Presentation of West Nile Virus 93
9.7 Management of West Nile Virus 95
9.8 Recent Advancements in Diagnostics, Clinical Assessment, and Treatment 96
9.9 Conclusion and Future Prediction 98
10 Hantavirus Disease: A Global Update over the Last Decade 106
Anita Patel, Nisarg Patel, and Jayvadan K. Patel
10.1 Introduction 106
10.2 Life Cycle 106
10.3 Ecology and Evolution of Hantavirus 108
10.4 Epidemiology of Hantavirus Infections 111
10.5 The Clinical Course of Hantavirus Diseases and Pathology 113
10.6 Laboratory Diagnosis of Hantavirus Infection 114
10.7 Treatment and Prevention 116
10.8 Recent Outbreaks of Hantavirus 121
10.9 Summary and Conclusion 122
11 Current Advances in Marburg Virus Disease 129
Emmanuel K. Ofori and Eric N.Y. Nyarko
11.1 Introduction 129
11.2 Pathogenesis and Pathophysiology of MARV 134
11.3 Marburg Virus Disease (MVD) 135
11.4 Conclusion 142
12 Recent Advances in Combating Nipah Virus Disease 145
Mehul Chorawala, Aanshi Pandya, Ishika Shah, Bhupendra G. Prajapati, Nirjari Kothari, and Aayushi Shah
12.1 Introduction 145
12.2 Recent Advancements in Nipah Virus Diagnostic Tools 151
12.3 Recent Development in Therapeutics and Treatment Modalities Against NiV Disease 152
12.4 Conclusion and Future Directions 158
13 Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) 164
Orhan E. Arslan
13.1 Introduction 164
13.2 Discussion 165
13.3 Conclusions 174
14 Chikungunya Fever: Epidemiology, Clinical Manifestation, and Management 181
Chandrakanta, Bhupendra G. Prajapati, and Archana N. Sah
14.1 Introduction 181
14.2 Epidemiology 184
14.3 Clinical Manifestation 186
14.4 Diagnosis of Chikungunya Fever 189
14.5 Management of Chikungunya Fever 190
14.6 Disease Modifying Antirheumatic Drugs 191
14.7 Non-Pharmacological Treatment 191
14.8 Medicinal Plants for CHIKV and Its Associated Symptoms 191
14.9 Future Prospectives 193
14.10 Conclusion 193
15 Lassa Fever: Recent Clinical Reports and Management Update 199
Abigail Aning, Kwasi A. Bugyei, Bismarck A. Hottor, and Seth K. Amponsah
15.1 Background 199
15.2 Geographical Distribution 199
15.3 Mode of Transmission 199
15.4 Reservoir Hosts 199
15.5 Incidence and Prevalence 200
15.6 Clinical Presentation 200
15.7 Diagnostic Methods 201
15.8 Recent Clinical Reports 201
15.9 Management and Treatment 202
15.10 Future Prospects and Research Directions 203
15.11 Conclusions 204
16 Lyme Disease Management: Antibiotics and Beyond 207
Aparoop Das, Kalyani Pathak, Manash P. Pathak, Urvashee Gogoi, and Riya Saikia
16.1 Introduction to Lyme Disease 207
16.2 Modes of Transmission 208
16.3 Recent Trends in Lyme Disease Management 209
16.4 Future Directions and Challenges in Lyme Disease Management 214
16.5 Conclusion 215
17 Chagas Disease: Historical and Current Trends 220
Vivek Patel, Dhara Patel, Grishma Patel, and Jayvadan K. Patel
17.1 Introduction 220
17.2 Discovery of Chagas Disease 221
17.3 Etiology of Chagas Disease 222
17.4 Lifecycle of T. cruzi 222
17.5 Clinical Forms of Chagas Disease 223
17.6 Diagnosis and Management of Chagas Disease 224
17.7 Conclusion 231
18 Legionnaires’ Disease: Current Trends in Microbiology and Pharmacology 237
Julia Wang, Neha Chintapally, Meera Nagpal, Anjali Mahapatra, and Charles Preuss
18.1 History of Legionella spp. 237
18.2 Bacterial Life Cycle 238
18.3 Pathogenicity 238
18.4 Alterations to Host Cell Pathways 239
18.5 Ubiquitin Pathways 240
18.6 Legionella-Amoeba Interactions 241
18.7 Risk Factors 241
18.8 Detection/Diagnostic Testing 241
18.9 Symptoms 242
18.10 Long-Term Effects and Co-morbidities 243
18.11 Prevention 243
18.12 Pharmacology 244
18.13 Treatments in Development 245
18.14 New Technologies 246
18.15 Conclusion 248
19 Babesiosis: An Emerging Global Threat 253
Komal Parmar and Jayvadan K. Patel
19.1 Introduction 253
19.2 World-Wide Babesiosis Human Infection 253
19.3 Life Cycle and Transmission 255
19.4 Clinical Features, Pathogenesis, and Diagnosis of Babesiosis 256
19.5 Management of Babesiosis 256
19.6 Conclusion 257
20 Epidemiology and Current Trends in Malaria 261
Priya Patel, Arti Bagada, and Nasir Vadia
20.1 History of Malaria 261
20.2 Types of Malaria 262
20.3 Worldwide Trend of Malaria (Geographical and Country)/The Spatial Epidemiology of Malaria Globally 264
20.4 History of Malaria Control by Various Authorities/Agencies 267
20.5 Diagnosis and Treatment 270
20.6 Prevention and Elimination of Malaria 272
20.7 Vaccine for Malaria and Current Trends of Malaria Treatment 273
20.8 Challenges for National Governments 275
20.9 Malaria Eradication Programme 276
20.10 Conclusion 278
21 Cryptosporidiosis: Recent Advances in Diagnostics and Management 283
Subhasundar Maji, Moitreyee Chattopadhyay, Debankini Dasgupta, Ananya Chanda, and Sandipan Dasgupta
21.1 Introduction 283
21.2 Epidemiology 284
21.3 What Is Cryptosporidium? 284
21.4 Mechanism of Cryptosporidium Infection 286
21.5 Diagnostic Methods 287
21.6 Management 288
21.7 Prevention and Control 291
21.8 Future Perspectives 293
21.9 Conclusion 294
22 Leishmaniasis: Current Trends in Microbiology and Pharmacology 297
Ismaila Adams, Awo A. Kwapong, Eugene Boafo, Elizabeth Twum, and Seth K. Amponsah
22.1 Introduction 297
22.2 Leishmania Species and Clinical Manifestations 298
22.3 Microbiology of Leishmania 299
22.4 Diagnosis of Leishmaniasis 301
22.5 Drug Therapy for Leishmaniasis 303
22.6 Drug Resistance in Leishmania 304
22.7 Strategies to Overcome Drug Resistance in Leishmania 305
22.8 New Developments in Antileishmanial Drugs 306
22.9 Repurposing Existing Drugs 308
22.10 Vector Control and Leishmaniasis Prevention 309
22.11 Conclusion 309
23 Recent Trends in Toxoplasmosis Diagnosis and Management 314
Mehul Chorawala, Nirjari Kothari, Aayushi Shah, Aanshi Pandya, Ishika Shah, and Bhupendra G. Prajapati
23.1 Introduction 314
23.2 Recent Advances in Diagnosis 319
23.3 Current Management of Toxoplasmosis 321
23.4 Need for Novel Treatment 324
23.5 Novel or Repurposed Therapeutic Molecules as Anti-Toxoplasma Activity 324
23.6 Conclusion and Outlook 329
24 Recent Trends in Neurocysticerosis Diagnosis and Management 337
Sachin P. Bhatt, Avani N. Joshi, and Bhupendra G. Prajapati
Abbreviations 337
24.1 Introduction 337
24.2 Immunologic Diagnosis 341
24.3 Management Approaches by Neurocysticercosis Form 344
24.4 Conclusion 347
25 Trichinosis: History and Current Trends 351
Moitreyee Chattopadhyay, Sandipan Dasgupta, Ananya Chanda, Subhasundar Maji, and Shwetlana Bandyopadhyay
25.1 Background 351
25.2 Historical Reports of Trichinosis Infection 351
25.3 The Discovery of Trichinosis 352
25.4 Major Outbreaks of Trichinosis 353
25.5 Trichinosis Episodes in Animals 356
25.6 The Nematode: Trichinella sp. 358
25.8 Control of Trichinella Infection in Humans 363
25.9 Current Trend in Trichinella Epidemiology 363
25.10 Conclusion 364
26 Schistosomiasis: Recent Clinical Reports and Management 368
Emmanuel K. Ofori and Akua O. Forson
26.1 Introduction 368
26.2 Parasitology Diagnosis 371
26.3 Biomarkers: Screening, Detection of Worm Antigens and Specific Antibodies 371
26.4 Radiology 372
26.5 Management 372
26.6 Conclusion 374
27 Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis: Evolutionary Dynamics, Advances in Diagnostics and Therapeutic Interventions 378
Lucy Mohapatra, Alok S. Tripathi, Bhupendra G. Prajapati, Alka, Deepak Mishra, Mohammad Yasir, and Rahul K. Maurya
27.1 Introduction 378
27.2 Epidemiology for Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis 379
27.3 Pathogenesis of Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis 379
27.4 Evolutionary Dynamics Involved in Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis 383
27.5 Diagnosis for Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis 385
27.6 Advances in Therapeutic Interventions for Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis 387
27.7 Conclusion 389
28 Epidemiology and Current Treatment Trends in “Thelaziasis” 396
Rihana B. Patnool, Badrud D. Mohammad, Vishwas H. Nagendra, Bhupendra G. Prajapati, Muhasina K. Muhamadkazim, and Sivasankaran Ponnusankar
28.1 Introduction 396
28.2 Causative Agents 397
28.3 Morphology 399
28.4 Mode of Transmission 402
28.5 Hosts and Vectors 403
28.6 Life Cycle of Thelazia Species 405
28.7 Molecular Acumens of Thelaziasis Species 406
28.8 Geographical Distribution 406
28.9 Clinical Presentations of Thelaziasis 407
28.10 Diagnosis of Thelaziasis 407
28.11 Treatment Options for Thelaziasis 407
28.12 Precautionary Measures 408
28.13 Preventive Measures for Thelaziasis 408
28.14 Recent Trends in Thelaziasis Control 409
28.15 Conclusion 409
29 Trypanosomiasis: Current Trends in Microbiology and Pharmacology 411
Verner N. Orish
29.1 Introduction 411
29.2 History 412
29.3 Parasite 413
29.4 Epidemiology of Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT) 416
29.5 Life Cycle of Trypanosoma 417
29.6 Other Mechanisms of Transmission 418
29.7 Pathogenesis of HAT 419
29.8 Clinical Manifestations 420
29.9 Diagnosis 420
29.10 Treatment 421
29.11 Control and Prevention 423
29.12 Challenges of Control and Prevention 424
29.13 Conclusion 424
30 Emerging and Re-Emerging Infectious Diseases of the Decade: Current Challenges and Future Directions 428
Seth K. Amponsah, Ranjita Shegokar, and Yashwant V. Pathak
30.1 Introduction 428
30.2 Factors Leading to the Emergence and Re-Emergence of Infectious Diseases 429
30.3 Current Challenges of Emerging and Re-Emerging Infectious Diseases 430
30.4 Strategies/Possible Interventions 431
30.5 Future Directions 433
30.6 Conclusion 434
References 434
Index 438
