Scientific Photography and Applied Imaging

By: Sidney Ray

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Hardcover | 2 August 1999 | Edition Number 1

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Hardcover
588 Pages

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25.4 x 17.78 x 3.18

Hardcover

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WINNER OF THE 2001 KRASZNA-KRAUSZ PHOTOGRAPHY BOOK AWARD (Technical Photography category)
The only definitive book to fully encompass the use of photography and imaging as tools in science, technology and medicine. It describes in one single volume the basic theory, techniques, materials, special equipment and applications for a wide variety of uses of photography, including: close up photography and photomacrography to spectral recording, surveillance systems, radiography and micro-imaging.
This extensively illustrated photography 'bible' contains all the information you need, whether you are a scientist wishing to use photography for a specialist application, a professional needing to extend technical expertise, or a student wanting to broaden your knowledge of the applications of photography.
The contents are arranged in three sections:
- General Section, detailing the elements of the image capture process
- Major Applications, describing the major applications of imaging
- Specialist Applications, presenting an eclectic selection of more specialised but increasingly important applications
Each subject is introduced with an outline of its development and contemporary importance, followed by explanations of essential theory and an overview of techniques and equipment. Mathematics is only used where necessary. Numerous applications and case studies are described. Comprehensive bibliographies and references are provided for further study.
Ensure you are aware of all the very latest scientific applications
Comprehensive wealth of scientific information in one single volume so it is all to hand when needed
Learn from Sidney Ray's complete coverage and interpretation of scientific and applied photography

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Non-Fiction Engineering & Technology Other Technologies & Applied Sciences Applied Optics Imaging Systems & Technology Science Science in General Arts & Entertainment Photography & Photographs Special Kinds of Photography Video Photography Photographic Equipment & Techniques

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Preface	p. xiii
Acknowledgements	p. xvii
Abbreviations and symbols used in text	p. xix
General section
Introduction	p. 1
Historical development	p. 1
Photography as a tool	p. 1
Scientific applications	p. 1
Spectral recording	p. 2
Optical techniques	p. 3
Photomacrography and photomicroscopy	p. 3
The study of motion and flow	p. 3
Photograpmmetry	p. 4
References and further reading	p. 4
Limits of human visual perception	p. 7
Introduction	p. 7
Advantages of photography	p. 7
Photography as a tool	p. 8
References and further reading	p. 9
Experimental design	p. 11
Introduction	p. 11
Planning	p. 13
The requirements for images	p. 13
Units and dimensions	p. 13
Working practices	p. 15
Safety	p. 17
Instrumentation	p. 18
Records and reports	p. 19
References and further reading	p. 19
Light and radiation sources	p. 21
Introduction	p. 21
Properties of a source	p. 22
Spectral output	p. 22
Colour temperature	p. 22
Directional properties	p. 24
Polarization	p. 25
Duration	p. 25
Operational factors	p. 25
Daylight	p. 25
Moonlight and starlight	p. 26
Tungsten filament sources	p. 26
Fluorescent lighting	p. 27
Discharge sources	p. 28
Luminescent sources	p. 28
Flash sources	p. 29
Expendable flashbulb	p. 29
Argon bomb	p. 30
Spark sources	p. 30
Electronic flash	p. 30
Stroboscope	p. 31
Microflash unit	p. 31
Flash X-ray source	p. 31
Laser sources	p. 31
Lasers	p. 31
Types of laser	p. 32
Applications	p. 33
Radiation sources	p. 34
References and further reading	p. 35
Optics and lenses	p. 37
Photographic optics	p. 37
Optical theory	p. 37
Optical materials	p. 37
Reflection	p. 38
Refraction	p. 38
Transmission	p. 38
Dispersion	p. 39
Physical optics	p. 40
Interference	p. 40
Diffraction	p. 40
Modulation transfer function	p. 40
Polarization	p. 42
Geometrical optics	p. 43
Simple lens	p. 43
Cardinal planes	p. 43
Focal length	p. 44
Image magnification	p. 45
Mirrors	p. 45
Optical calculations	p. 45
Parameters	p. 45
Equations	p. 46
Focusing movements	p. 47
Depth of field and depth of focus	p. 47
Photographic lenses	p. 48
Testing optical systems	p. 50
Introduction	p. 50
Laboratory testing	p. 50
Test target design and results	p. 50
Flare	p. 51
Image contrast	p. 51
Optical filters	p. 52
References and further reading	p. 53
Camera systems for data capture	p. 55
Introduction	p. 55
General purpose cameras	p. 57
Cine cameras	p. 57
Video cameras	p. 57
Instrumentation cameras	p. 58
Special purpose cameras	p. 58
Polaroid cameras	p. 59
Scientific cameras	p. 59
Camera design	p. 59
The sensor array	p. 59
Other features	p. 63
Digital cameras	p. 63
Viewfinder systems	p. 65
Camera movements	p. 66
Data imprinting	p. 67
References and further reading	p. 69
Shutter systems	p. 71
Introduction	p. 71
Shutterless systems	p. 74
Electronic flash	p. 74
Leaf shutters	p. 75
Focal plane shutters	p. 76
Electronic shutters	p. 77
References and further reading	p. 78
Lighting	p. 80
Introduction	p. 80
General	p. 80
Illumination	p. 80
Lighting ratio	p. 80
Shadows	p. 81
Estimating lighting requirements	p. 82
Standardized lighting	p. 82
Daylight	p. 83
Studio lighting	p. 83
Diffuse lighting	p. 84
Bright field lighting	p. 86
Transillumination	p. 86
Oblique lighting	p. 88
Dark field lighting	p. 88
Axial lighting	p. 90
Structured lighting	p. 92
Light sheets	p. 94
Miscellaneous techniques	p. 95
Large areas	p. 95
Light guides	p. 95
Special systems	p. 95
Lighting accessories	p. 96
Filters	p. 97
Polarizing filters	p. 97
Laser illumination	p. 98
References and further reading	p. 99
Exposure determination	p. 101
Introduction	p. 101
Theoretical considerations	p. 102
Exposure value	p. 105
Light metering systems	p. 106
Film speed	p. 108
Exposure determination systems	p. 109
Exposure data	p. 109
Automatic exposure systems	p. 109
Metering techniques	p. 110
Exposure control by lighting	p. 111
Electronic imaging systems	p. 112
References and further reading	p. 114
Image recording systems	p. 116
Introduction	p. 116
Recording medium	p. 116
Choice of medium	p. 118
Silver halide systems	p. 119
Introduction	p. 119
Properties	p. 120
Types of material	p. 121
Hard copy output	p. 123
Processing routines	p. 123
Wet processing	p. 123
Modified processing	p. 123
Laboratories and darkrooms	p. 123
Special treatments	p. 124
Introduction	p. 124
Hypersensitization	p. 124
Non-silver imaging systems	p. 125
Characteristics	p. 125
Hard copy systems	p. 125
Recording soft images	p. 125
The soft image	p. 125
Direct screen photography	p. 126
Film recorders and writers	p. 126
Direct film recorders	p. 127
The image plate	p. 128
Oscillography	p. 128
Direct writing	p. 129
Electronic imaging systems	p. 129
Image tube devices	p. 130
Raster scan systems	p. 130
Solid state arrays	p. 130
The digital image	p. 131
Time based media	p. 132
Transfer to another medium	p. 132
References and further reading	p. 133
Image processing, analysis and management	p. 137
Introduction	p. 137
Visual image processing	p. 137
Photographic methods	p. 138
General	p. 138
Contrast filters	p. 139
Darkroom routines	p. 141
Masking	p. 141
Photographic masks	p. 141
Electronic masking	p. 144
Optical image processing	p. 144
Fourier transforms	p. 144
Coherent image processing	p. 146
The Fourier Transform plane	p. 147
Spatial filtering and masking	p. 148
Digital image processing	p. 148
Introduction	p. 148
Image calibration	p. 149
Image enhancement and restoration	p. 150
Point processing	p. 150
Group processing	p. 152
Geometric transformations	p. 152
Image analysis	p. 152
Image compression	p. 157
Image synthesis	p. 158
Image management	p. 158
Introduction	p. 158
Image archiving	p. 158
Digital image archiving	p. 159
References and further reading	p. 160
Major applications
Close-up photography and photomacrography	p. 162
Introduction	p. 162
Optical performance	p. 162
Imaging requirements	p. 163
Optimum aperture	p. 166
Optical systems	p. 167
Focusing extension	p. 167
Extension tubes and bellows	p. 171
Close-up lenses	p. 175
Macro lens designs	p. 176
Macro lenses	p. 176
Medical macro lenses	p. 177
True macro lenses	p. 177
Other lenses	p. 179
Practical considerations	p. 179
Depth of field	p. 180
Calculations	p. 180
Special techniques	p. 181
Illumination and lighting	p. 182
Exposure considerations	p. 185
References and further reading	p. 186
Photomicrography	p. 188
Optical microscopy	p. 188
Simple microscope	p. 188
Compound microscope	p. 189
Resolving power and magnification	p. 190
Abbe's theory of the microscope	p. 190
Useful magnification	p. 192
Magnification	p. 192
Depth of field	p. 193
Depth of focus	p. 193
Optical systems	p. 193
The objective lens	p. 193
Reflecting objectives	p. 197
Objectives for reflected incident light	p. 198
The eyepiece	p. 198
The substage condenser	p. 199
Calibration of the microscope	p. 200
The photomicroscope	p. 200
Camera systems	p. 200
Camera exposure in photomicroscopy	p. 201
Filters	p. 203
Specimen preparation	p. 203
Illumination systems	p. 203
Transillumination (bright field)	p. 204
Critical illumination	p. 204
Kohler illumination	p. 204
Dark field illumination	p. 205
Rheinberg illumination	p. 206
Reflected illumination	p. 206
Interference contrast microscopy	p. 207
Interference microscopes	p. 207
Phase contrast	p. 208
Differential interference contrast	p. 208
Polarized light microscopy	p. 210
Confocal microscopy	p. 211
Fluorescence microscopy	p. 214
Ultraviolet microscopy	p. 215
Infrared microscopy	p. 215
Electron microscopy	p. 215
Transmission electron microscope (TEM)	p. 216
Scanning electron microscope (SEM)	p. 218
X-ray microscopy	p. 219
Scanning probe microscopy	p. 220
Image enhancement	p. 220
References and further reading	p. 221
Micro-imaging	p. 223
Introduction	p. 223
Terminology and units	p. 223
Historical	p. 224
Resolving power	p. 224
Depth of focus	p. 226
Lenses for micro-imaging	p. 226
Microlithography	p. 228
Microdocumentation	p. 231
Digital micrographics	p. 234
References and further reading	p. 234
Photofabrication	p. 237
Introduction	p. 237
Applications	p. 238
Advantages	p. 238
The photomaster	p. 238
Artwork preparation	p. 238
Camera techniques	p. 239
Illumination of the copyboard	p. 240
Process lens	p. 241
Accurate size images	p. 244
Photoresists	p. 244
Contemporary applications	p. 245
References and further reading	p. 247
Stereoscopic (3D) photography	p. 248
Visual perception of space	p. 248
Stereoscopic photography	p. 249
Orthostereoscopy	p. 251
Stereoscopic camera systems	p. 255
Stereoscopic cine camera systems	p. 260
Stereoscopic video systems	p. 260
Autostereoscopic systems	p. 262
Mounting stereograms	p. 263
Stereoscopic projection	p. 265
Stereoscopic viewing systems	p. 266
Stereophotomicrography	p. 268
References and further reading	p. 268
Photogrammetry	p. 271
Introduction	p. 271
Planimetric survey techniques	p. 271
Optical principles	p. 274
Monophotogrammetry: the geometry of a single photograph	p. 276
The datum plane	p. 276
Photoradiation	p. 276
Direction angles	p. 276
Tilt and rectification	p. 277
Radial distances	p. 278
Shadow lengths	p. 278
The geometry of two overlapping photographs	p. 279
Stereophotogrammetry: the geometry of a stereopair of images	p. 280
Lens distortion	p. 281
Types of distortion	p. 281
Calibrated focal length	p. 281
The metric camera	p. 283
Camera calibration	p. 284
Stereo plotters	p. 284
Errors and accuracy	p. 285
Non-topographic stereophotogrammetry	p. 287
Digital photogrammetry	p. 287
Perspective grid photography	p. 288
Moire interferometry	p. 290
Orthophotography using telecentric optics	p. 292
Miscellaneous methods	p. 294
Computer assisted methods	p. 295
References and further reading	p. 295
Aerial photography	p. 300
Introduction	p. 300
Types of aerial photography	p. 300
Aerial platforms	p. 302
Camera types and systems	p. 305
Camera systems	p. 305
Handheld cameras	p. 305
Mapping cameras	p. 305
Reconnaissance cameras	p. 306
Electronic imaging systems	p. 307
Small format aerial photography	p. 307
Optics and lenses	p. 308
Environmental optics	p. 308
Lenses	p. 308
System performance	p. 309
Resolution requirements	p. 310
System resolution	p. 310
Image motion compensation	p. 311
Recording systems	p. 313
Aerial film materials	p. 313
Exposure	p. 313
Film processing	p. 313
Electronic sensors	p. 314
Vertical aerial photography	p. 315
Photographic cover	p. 315
Imaging parameters	p. 317
Planimetric data	p. 318
Relief effects	p. 318
Measurement of parallax	p. 319
Orientation	p. 321
Orthophotos	p. 322
References and further reading	p. 322
Remote sensing	p. 325
Introduction	p. 325
Principles	p. 325
Applications	p. 325
Resolution	p. 327
Introduction	p. 327
Spatial resolution	p. 327
Spectral resolution	p. 328
Radiometric resolution	p. 328
Aerial platforms	p. 329
Aircraft	p. 329
Unmanned aerial vehicles	p. 329
Satellite systems	p. 329
Satellites	p. 329
Orbits	p. 329
Detection	p. 330
Photography and video systems	p. 330
Multispectral photography and imaging	p. 331
Spectral separation	p. 331
Camera systems	p. 333
Imagers	p. 335
Other systems	p. 336
Thermal imagers	p. 337
Microwave systems	p. 337
Principles	p. 337
Side looking airborne radar	p. 338
Synthetic aperture radar	p. 340
Laser systems	p. 341
References and further reading	p. 341
Infrared recording	p. 344
Introduction	p. 344
Spectral properties	p. 345
Emission	p. 345
Transmission	p. 347
Reflection	p. 349
Infrared sources	p. 350
Infrared optics and lenses	p. 350
Refractive systems	p. 350
IR focus correction	p. 351
Reflective optics	p. 352
Filters	p. 352
Infrared sensitive materials and sensors	p. 353
Silver halide systems	p. 353
Electronic imaging	p. 355
Lighting	p. 356
References and further reading	p. 357
Imaging systems	p. 359
Thermal imaging	p. 359
Introduction	p. 359
Infrared radiation	p. 359
Thermal detectors	p. 362
Thermal imagers	p. 364
Optical systems	p. 365
General applications	p. 366
Biomedical applications	p. 367
Computerized tomography	p. 367
Introduction	p. 367
Tomography	p. 369
Nuclear medicine	p. 369
Magnetic resonance imaging	p. 370
Principles	p. 370
Differentiation of tissues	p. 372
MRI scanner design	p. 373
Image slices	p. 373
Ultrasound imaging	p. 374
Introduction	p. 374
Scanning techniques	p. 375
Image reconstruction	p. 376
References and further reading	p. 377
Ultraviolet recording	p. 379
Introduction	p. 379
Spectral properties	p. 379
Biological effects	p. 381
Spectral transmission	p. 381
UV Filters	p. 382
Sources of UV	p. 383
Measurement of UV	p. 385
UV optics and lenses	p. 386
Spectral properties	p. 386
Achromatization	p. 387
Contemporary designs	p. 388
UV sensitive detectors	p. 388
Silver halide materials	p. 388
Other detectors	p. 388
UV reflectance recording	p. 389
UV fluorescence recording	p. 390
Fluorescence	p. 390
Applications	p. 391
References and further reading	p. 392
Radiography	p. 394
Introduction	p. 394
Nature and origins	p. 394
Half-life of radiations	p. 394
Radiation hazards	p. 395
Short wavelength EM radiation	p. 396
Gamma rays	p. 397
X-rays	p. 397
X-rays - a chronology	p. 397
X-ray properties	p. 398
Geometry of radiography	p. 400
Radiographic exposure	p. 400
Fluoroscopy and fluorography	p. 405
Detection of X-rays	p. 405
Stereoradiography	p. 406
Microradiography	p. 407
Autoradiography	p. 407
Flash radiography	p. 407
X-ray optics	p. 408
Digital radiology	p. 409
Nuclear track recording	p. 410
References and further reading	p. 410
Photographic visualization	p. 412
Introduction	p. 412
Shadowgraphs	p. 412
Time lapse recording	p. 413
Time relationships	p. 413
Time lapse cine	p. 415
Time lapse video	p. 416
Time lapse photography	p. 416
Study of motion	p. 416
Progress photography	p. 416
Time exposures	p. 417
Chronocyclography	p. 418
Stroboscopy	p. 420
Flow visualization	p. 421
Tracers	p. 421
Addition of energy	p. 421
Changes of density	p. 421
Schlieren systems	p. 422
Toepler schlieren methods	p. 422
Theoretical considerations	p. 425
Schlieren system variations	p. 426
Stress analysis	p. 427
Photoelastic systems	p. 427
Thermal systems	p. 431
Kirlian photography	p. 431
References and further reading	p. 431
High speed photography and photonics	p. 434
Introduction	p. 434
Motion studies	p. 434
Early achievements	p. 434
Nature of the event	p. 435
Temporal sampling	p. 435
Type of record	p. 435
Exposure duration	p. 436
HSP with conventional equipment	p. 437
Equations of motion	p. 438
Synchronization and triggering	p. 441
High speed shutters	p. 443
Light and radiation sources	p. 443
Conventional sources	p. 443
Electronic flash	p. 443
Stroboscopes	p. 444
Spark sources	p. 444
The argon bomb source	p. 445
Arc and discharge sources	p. 446
Laser sources	p. 446
X-ray sources	p. 446
Streak photography	p. 447
Intermittent action cameras	p. 450
Rotating prism cameras	p. 450
Rotating mirror cameras	p. 452
Drum cameras	p. 453
Electro-optical systems	p. 454
Image tube cameras	p. 454
Streak operation	p. 456
Still video systems	p. 456
High speed video recording systems	p. 458
Film and video analysis	p. 460
Applications	p. 462
Ballistics and detonics	p. 462
References	p. 463
Further reading	p. 465
Specialist applications
Surveillance systems	p. 466
Introduction	p. 466
Identification systems	p. 466
Traffic surveillance	p. 466
Data transmission	p. 467
Time lapse systems	p. 468
Triggering systems	p. 468
Surveillance cameras	p. 469
Infrared surveillance	p. 470
Optical systems	p. 470
Specialist systems	p. 471
References and further reading	p. 471
Low light level imaging	p. 472
Introduction	p. 472
Detective quantum efficiency	p. 472
Spectral and temporal considerations	p. 473
Light losses in imaging	p. 474
Photographic materials	p. 475
Low intensity reciprocity law failure	p. 476
Cine systems	p. 477
Video systems	p. 477
Image intensifier systems	p. 478
Image converters	p. 481
Micro-channel plate intensifiers	p. 481
Gated systems	p. 482
Photon counting imagers	p. 482
Cooled slow scan cameras	p. 483
Optical image coupling	p. 484
References and further reading	p. 484
Telephotography	p. 486
Introduction	p. 486
Imaging considerations	p. 487
Resolution	p. 487
Image stabilization	p. 489
Other factors	p. 491
Optical systems	p. 491
Dioptric lenses	p. 491
Teleconverters	p. 492
Catadioptric lenses	p. 492
Applications	p. 494
Optical tracking	p. 494
Long range oblique photography	p. 495
References and further reading	p. 495
Cavity and endoscopic systems	p. 497
Introduction	p. 497
Cavity photography	p. 497
Ringlights	p. 498
Tubes and pipelines	p. 499
Periscopic systems (borescopes)	p. 500
Fibre optic endoscopes	p. 502
Light guides	p. 504
Electronic (video) endoscopy	p. 505
Stereoendoscopy	p. 505
The retinal camera	p. 506
References and further reading	p. 506
Underwater photography	p. 509
Environmental considerations	p. 509
Introduction	p. 509
Refraction	p. 509
Absorption	p. 510
Turbidity	p. 510
Underwater optics	p. 512
Field of view	p. 512
Distortion	p. 512
Corrective optical systems	p. 513
Dome port	p. 513
Ivanoff corrector	p. 514
Retrofocus systems	p. 514
Water contact lenses	p. 514
Lighting	p. 515
Camera systems	p. 515
Underwater imaging systems	p. 518
References and further reading	p. 519
Panoramic photography	p. 521
Introduction	p. 521
Wide angle camera systems	p. 521
Camera movements	p. 521
Rotation of camera	p. 523
Swing lens camera (short rotation)	p. 523
Rotating cameras	p. 523
Rotating prism cameras	p. 525
Anamorphic systems	p. 526
Digital methods	p. 528
References and further reading	p. 529
Peripheral photography	p. 530
Introduction	p. 530
Practical systems	p. 530
Variations	p. 531
Applications	p. 532
References and further reading	p. 533
Fisheye lens photography	p. 534
Imaging requirements	p. 534
Design development	p. 535
Design features	p. 537
References and further reading	p. 539
Holography	p. 541
Outline theory	p. 541
Wavefront reconstruction	p. 541
Mathematical outline	p. 541
Fringe patterns	p. 543
Hologram properties	p. 543
Holographic techniques	p. 544
Illumination system	p. 544
Recording requirements	p. 545
Applications of holography	p. 546
References and further reading	p. 547
Index	p. 549
Table of Contents provided by Syndetics. All Rights Reserved.

Scientific Photography and Applied Imaging

At a Glance

Hardcover

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