Foreword xiii
Preface xv
Part 1. Earthquakes and Induced Phenomena 1
Chapter 1. Causes of Earthquakes 5
1.1. Tectonic earthquakes 5
1.1.1. First attempts at explanation 5
1.1.2. From continental drift to plate tectonics 9
1.1.3. Seismicity of tectonic origin 20
1.2. Faults 26
1.2.1. Relationship between earthquakes and faults 27
1.2.2. Classification of faults 29
1.2.3. Focal mechanisms 38
1.2.4. Different aspects of rupture 45
1.3. Non-tectonic earthquakes 47
1.3.1. Non-tectonic quakes with natural causes 48
1.3.2. Artificial earthquakes 49
1.3.3. Induced earthquakes 50
Chapter 2. Parameters Used to Define Earthquakes 55
2.1. Elementary theory of elastic rebound 56
2.1.1. Description of the elementary model 56
2.1.2. Energy balance 61
2.1.3. Law of scale 65
2.2. Geometry of the faults 70
2.2.1. Length of fault and length of rupture 70
2.2.2. Well documented examples of fault ruptures 78
2.2.3. Correlations of geometric characteristics of ruptures with moment magnitude 82
2.3. Parametric description of earthquakes 93
2.3.1. Source parameters and effect parameters 93
2.3.2. Different magnitudes 99
Chapter 3. Manifestations of the Seismic Phenomena on the Surface 107
3.1. Deformation of superficial terrains 107
3.1.1. Deformations linked to tectonics 107
3.1.2. Deformations linked to vibratory motions 110
3.2. Seismic waves 114
3.2.1. Different types of seismic waves 114
3.2.2. Ideas on the theory of rays 121
3.2.3. Attenuation of seismic waves 135
3.3. Induced phenomena 143
3.3.1. Soil liquefaction 143
3.3.2. Landslides 148
3.3.3. Tsunamis and seiches 154
3.3.4. Other seismic manifestations 159
Part 2. Strong Ground Motions 161
Chapter 4. Strong Vibratory Motions 165
4.1. Recordings 165
4.1.1. Examples of accelerograms recorded in the near zone 165
4.1.2. Parametric description of the accelerograms 168
4.1.3. The three components of vibratory motion 178
4.2. Attenuation laws of peak values 186
4.2.1. General considerations as regards attenuation laws 186
4.2.2. Examples of attenuation laws for peak values 188
4.2.3. Recommendations for the use of attenuation laws 197
4.3. Directivity effects and site effects 201
4.3.1. Inadequacy of a description based on magnitude and distance 201
4.3.2. Directivity effects 202
4.3.3. Presentation of site effects 210
4.3.4. Causes of site effects 212
Chapter 5. Calculation Models for Strong Vibratory Motions 223
5.1. Orders of magnitude deduced from the basic theory of elastic rebound 223
5.1.1. Limits of the basic theory of elastic rebound for the calculation of motions 223
5.1.2. Model of elastic rebound with multiple ruptures 227
5.1.3. Calculation of the theoretical attenuation laws associated with the model of rebound elasticity with multiple ruptures 229
5.2. Digital source models 232
5.2.1. General considerations pertaining to models of digital simulation of the seismic source 232
5.2.2. Examples of digital simulation of real earthquakes 234
5.3. Practical calculations of the site effects 240
5.3.1. Models of soil behavior 240
5.3.2. Seismic responses of columns of soil 248
5.3.3. Review of the assessment of site effects 267
Part 3. Seismic Hazards 275
Chapter 6. The Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Seismicity 281
6.1. Data available on the spatial and temporal distribution of seismicity 281
6.1.1. Geological data 281
6.1.2. Historical seismicity 283
6.1.3. Archeoseismicity and paleoseismicity 288
6.1.4. Instrumental seismicity 294
6.2. Models of temporal distribution of seismicity 296
6.2.1. Return periods 296
6.2.2. Gutenberg-Richter law 300
6.2.3. Model of a characteristic earthquake 305
6.3. Prediction of earthquakes 307
6.3.1. Seismic precursors 308
6.3.2. Current questions on forecast 309
Chapter 7. Assessment of Seismic Hazard 315
7.1. Methods of assessment of seismic hazard 315
7.1.1. General notes pertaining to different approaches 315
7.1.2. An example of the deterministic method 317
7.1.3. Probabilistic methods 321
7.2. Practices for the evaluation of seismic hazard 326
7.2.1. Normative evaluation and specific evaluation 326
7.2.2. Zoning for the anti-seismic codes 327
7.2.3. Seismic microzoning 330
7.2.4. Orders of magnitude for hazards due to a fault (vibratory motion and surface rupture) 333
7.2.5. Orders of magnitude of vibratory hazard in diffuse seismicity zones 344
7.2.6. Effect of the size of the site on the vibratory hazard in a zone of diffuse seismicity 353
Part 4. Seismic Action 359
Chapter 8. The Seismic Coefficient 365
8.1. The seismic coefficient in past earthquake-resistant codes 365
8.1.1. Notion of seismic coefficient 365
8.1.2. Development of the seismic coefficient 366
8.2. The seismic coefficient in current earthquake-resistant codes 370
8.2.1. The structure of current earthquake-resistant codes 370
8.2.2. The definition of seismic action and the rules of calculation in current earthquake-resistant codes 371
Chapter 9. The Response Spectrum 375
9.1. The response spectrum of elastic oscillators 375
9.1.1. Response spectrum of elastic oscillators associated with a natural accelerogram 375
9.1.2. Response spectrum of elastic oscillators that can be used for designing 386
9.2. Introduction to spectral modal analysis of elastic structures 394
9.2.1. Presentation of a simple example to introduce spectral modal analysis 394
9.2.2. Calculation model for the chosen example 398
9.2.3. Non-damped eigenmodes 401
9.2.4. Calculation of the response for the chosen example 407
9.2.5. Calculation of displacements, accelerations and forces for the chosen example 410
9.3. Structural design spectra 418
9.3.1. Reasons for the general consideration of nonlinearities: the behavior coefficient 418
9.3.2. Elastic and inelastic design spectrum 427
Chapter 10. Other Representations of Seismic Action 433
10.1. Natural or synthetic accelerograms 433
10.1.1. Types of analyses for which accelerogram representation is necessary 433
10.1.2. Choice of accelerograms for linear analysis 435
10.1.3. Choice of accelerograms for nonlinear analysis 437
10.2. Random processes 445
10.2.1. Unfiltered white noise 446
10.2.2. Filtered white noise 452
10.2.3. Theorem of general Brownian motion 456
Part 5. The Effects of Earthquakes on Buildings 467
Chapter 11. Deformation Effects Sustained by Superficial Ground 473
11.1. Effects of irreversible deformations 473
11.1.1. Damage directly due to movements on fault surfaces 473
11.1.2. Damage due to irreversible deformations of the ground in a horizontal direction (other than fault movements) 481
11.1.3. Damage due to irreversible deformation of the ground in a vertical direction (other than fault movements) 487
11.2. Effects of reversible deformation 490
11.2.1. Details of effects due to reversible deformation with respect to those due to irreversible deformations 490
11.2.2. Static or dynamic character of effects due to reversible deformations 492
Chapter 12. Effects of Vibratory Motions 497
12.1. Effects at the structure/subsoil contact 498
12.1.1. Slipping and tilting 498
12.1.2. Rupture of the ground or foundation system 507
12.2. Inertial effects in structures 512
12.2.1. General observations on the inertial effects 512
12.2.2. Damage and destruction patterns due to horizontal inertial effects for concrete structures 513
12.2.3. Damage and destruction patterns due to horizontal inertial effects for steel structures 535
12.2.4. Damage and destruction patterns due to horizontal inertial effects for structures made of masonry or wood 546
12.2.5. Damage patterns due to vertical inertial effect 553
12.2.6. Effects of shocks 556
12.3. Effects on non-structural elements and supported equipment 564
12.3.1. Deformations imposed on non-structural elements 564
12.3.2. Accelerations transmitted to supported equipment 567
Chapter 13. Effects of Induced Phenomena 573
13.1. Effects of naturally induced phenomena 573
13.1.1. Effects of liquefaction 573
13.1.2. Other naturally induced phenomena 575
13.2. Phenomena induced in networks and industrial setups 575
13.2.1. Disruption of the functioning of networks 575
13.2.2. Fires 578
13.2.3. Accidents in industrial facilities 580
Chapter 14. Scales of Macroseismic Intensity 581
14.1. Characterization of the force of earthquakes through assessment of their effects 581
14.1.1. A summary of the history of scales of intensity 581
14.1.2. Description of some scales of intensity 583
14.1.3. Benefits and limitations of the notion of intensity 588
14.2. Numerical correlations using intensities 594
14.2.1. Correlations of intensities with parameters of vibratory motion 594
14.2.2. Magnitude-intensity relations and attenuation laws of intensity 598
Part 6. Seismic Calculations 603
Chapter 15. Linear Seismic Calculation 607
15.1. General observations on linear calculation 607
15.1.1. General formulation with relation to absolute axes 607
15.1.2. Formulations for block movement of supports 612
15.1.3. Representation of damping 619
15.1.4. Notes on modeling 627
15.2. Modal spectral analysis for block translation of supports 637
15.2.1. Eigenmodes and quantities attached to modes 638
15.2.2. Number of modes to be retained and combination of modal responses 653
15.2.3. Combination of effects with three components 667
15.2.4. Some properties of stick models working in shear 673
15.2.5. Continuous models. Example of a uniform cantilever beam 685
Chapter 16. Notions on Soil/Structure Interaction 703
16.1. General observations on soil/structure interaction 703
16.1.1. Presentation of the soil/structure interaction phenomena 703
16.1.2. Kinematic and inertial interaction 709
16.1.3. Radiative (or geometric) damping 713
16.2. Practical consideration of the soil/structure interaction 721
16.2.1. General case 721
16.2.2. Shallow foundations 724
16.2.3. Cases of deep foundations and linear embedded structures 739
16.2.4. Winkler type models 746
Chapter 17. Overview of Nonlinear Calculations 767
17.1. General observations on nonlinear calculations 767
17.1.1. The problem of hypothesis and criteria 767
17.1.2. Methods of giving recognition to nonlinearities 772
17.2. Some examples of nonlinear calculations 781
17.2.1. Tilting of the rigid blocks 781
17.2.2. Basemat uplifts 793
17.2.3. Slipping of massive blocks 800
17.2.4. Plasticization of building structures 808
17.2.5. Nonlinear shock absorbers for bridges 822
17.2.6. Pipelines going through a fault 827
Part 7. Seismic Prevention Tools 833
Chapter 18. Technical Aspects of Prevention 839
18.1. Tools for learning 839
18.1.1. The analysis of past experience 839
18.1.2. Test methods 844
18.1.3. Calculation methods 856
18.2. Earthquake engineering codes for normal risks 858
18.2.1. Area of application and technical objectives of the codes 858
18.2.2. Current and future earthquake engineering codes 863
18.3. Special earthquake resistant devices 866
18.3.1. Earthquake resistant supports made of sandwiched elastomer layers 866
18.3.2. Other special earthquake resistant devices 887
18.3.3. Active control 898
18.4. Earthquake engineering practices for special risk 899
18.4.1. Nuclear power plants and facilities 900
18.4.2. Chemical, oil and gas plants 907
18.4.3. Dams 909
18.5. Seismic diagnosis and reinforcement of the existing framework 913
18.5.1. The different aspects of seismic diagnosis 914
18.5.2. Rehabilitation and reinforcement 928
Bibliography 933
Index 953
