| Preface | p. xiii |
| Sensing the Real World | |
| Introduction | p. 1 |
| Sensor Classification | p. 2 |
| Sensor Parameters | p. 3 |
| A Seamless Sensor System | p. 4 |
| Sensor Industry Growth | p. 6 |
| Summary | p. 8 |
| References | p. 11 |
| Modeling and Simulation of Microsensors and Actuators | |
| Introduction | p. 13 |
| Modeling Equations | p. 14 |
| The Basic Semiconductor Equations | p. 14 |
| Boundary Conditions | p. 16 |
| Simplification of the Problem | p. 17 |
| Combination of Mechanical and Electrical Effects | p. 18 |
| Discretization Procedures | p. 20 |
| Accelerated Nonlinear Procedures | p. 21 |
| Methods of Solution and Grid Generation | p. 22 |
| Equation Discretization | p. 26 |
| Error Checking | p. 29 |
| Results and Discussion | p. 30 |
| Hall Devices | p. 30 |
| Magnetotransistor | p. 33 |
| Micromachined Flow Sensor | p. 36 |
| Dynamic Microstructures | p. 39 |
| Summary | p. 43 |
| References | p. 43 |
| Bulk Micromachining Technology | |
| Introduction | p. 49 |
| Basic Concept of Bulk Micromachining | p. 50 |
| Silicon as a Mechanical Material | p. 50 |
| Wet Anisotropic Etching | p. 51 |
| Anisotropic Etchants | p. 59 |
| Etch-Stop Mechanisms | p. 69 |
| CMOS Technology and Bulk Micromachining | p. 76 |
| CMOS Processing | p. 76 |
| Micromechanical Structures in CMOS Processing | p. 77 |
| Applications of Bulk Micromachining | p. 82 |
| Bulk Micromachined Accelerometer | p. 82 |
| Thermal Infrared Sensor | p. 84 |
| Inductors in CMOS Technology | p. 86 |
| Summary | p. 89 |
| References | p. 90 |
| Surface Micromachining Technology | |
| Introduction | p. 95 |
| Basic Concept of Surface Micromachining Technology | p. 96 |
| Layer Stacking | p. 96 |
| Sealing | p. 98 |
| Polysilicon for Surface Micromachining | p. 99 |
| Deposition of Polysilicon | p. 100 |
| As-Deposited Film Stress | p. 105 |
| Annealing of Undoped Films | p. 107 |
| In-Situ Doping | p. 108 |
| Ex-Situ Doping | p. 115 |
| Sacrificial Layers and Sacrificial Etching | p. 118 |
| Stiction | p. 124 |
| Mechanical Characterization of Polysilicon | p. 126 |
| Test Structures for In-Situ Characterization | p. 126 |
| Gradient of Residual Stress | p. 130 |
| Load-Response Characterization | p. 133 |
| Application of Surface Micromachining | p. 140 |
| Surface Micromachined Accelerometer | p. 140 |
| Electrostatically Driven Resonators | p. 143 |
| Integration of Surface Micromachined Structures--Processing Issues | p. 144 |
| LIGA Process | p. 146 |
| Summary | p. 149 |
| References | p. 150 |
| Silicon Direct Wafer Bonding | |
| Introduction | p. 157 |
| Mechanism of Direct Wafer Bonding | p. 159 |
| SiO[subscript 2]//SiO[subscript 2] Bonding | p. 160 |
| Si//Si Bonding | p. 164 |
| Processing Considerations | p. 168 |
| Interface Integrity | p. 168 |
| Bond Strength | p. 178 |
| Shaping Bonded Wafers | p. 180 |
| Microdefects in Bonded Wafers | p. 186 |
| Application of Direct Wafer Bonding to Sensors and Actuators | p. 192 |
| Threshold Pressure Switch | p. 192 |
| Pressure Sensor | p. 195 |
| Peristaltic Membrane Pump | p. 198 |
| Summary | p. 199 |
| References | p. 199 |
| Packaging for Sensors | |
| Introduction | p. 203 |
| Basic Considerations for Sensor Packaging | p. 204 |
| Wafer-Level Packaging | p. 207 |
| Glass-Sealed Technique | p. 208 |
| Anodic Bonding | p. 210 |
| Assembly Techniques | p. 212 |
| Die Bonding | p. 212 |
| Wire Bonding | p. 217 |
| Chip Coatings | p. 219 |
| Package Types | p. 220 |
| Packaging for Specific Applications | p. 227 |
| Pressure Sensor Packaging | p. 227 |
| Accelerometer Packaging | p. 235 |
| Summary | p. 237 |
| References | p. 237 |
| Magnetic Field Sensors Based on Lateral Magnetotransistors | |
| Introduction | p. 239 |
| Lateral Magnetotransistors | p. 240 |
| Combined Action of an Electric Field and a Magnetic Field | p. 241 |
| Lateral Magnetotransistor in CMOS Technology | p. 242 |
| Suppressed Sidewall Injection Magnetotransistor in CMOS Technology | p. 243 |
| Suppressed Sidewall Injection Magnetotransistor in Bipolar Technology | p. 255 |
| Offset in Magnetotransistors | p. 258 |
| Noise in Magnetotransistors | p. 260 |
| Surface Effects | p. 268 |
| Multidimensional Sensing | p. 270 |
| Lateral Magnetotransistor Sensitive to Magnetic Field Either Parallel or Perpendicular to the Chip Surface | p. 271 |
| Two-Dimensional Sensing | p. 273 |
| Three-Dimensional Sensing | p. 277 |
| Summary | p. 282 |
| References | p. 282 |
| Thermal Sensors | |
| Introduction | p. 287 |
| Bipolar Devices as Temperature Sensors | p. 288 |
| Diodes as Temperature Sensors | p. 289 |
| Bipolar Transistors as Temperature Sensors | p. 290 |
| Stability | p. 294 |
| Integrated Temperature Sensors in Bipolar Technology | p. 294 |
| Intrinsically Referenced Temperature Sensors | p. 300 |
| Temperature Sensors in CMOS Technology | p. 302 |
| Bipolar Transistors in CMOS Technology | p. 302 |
| Integrated Temperature Sensors in CMOS Technology Based on Bipolar Transistors | p. 304 |
| Temperature Sensors Based on MOS Transistors and Resistors | p. 307 |
| Temperature Sensors with Digital Output | p. 309 |
| Polysilicon Resistors | p. 311 |
| Summary | p. 313 |
| References | p. 313 |
| Planar Silicon Photosensors | |
| Introduction | p. 317 |
| Planar Silicon Photodiodes | p. 320 |
| Fundamentals of Photosensors | p. 322 |
| Material Properties | p. 322 |
| Quantum Efficiency | p. 326 |
| Collection Efficiency Models | p. 327 |
| Photocurrent | p. 330 |
| Noise Current | p. 331 |
| Response Time | p. 333 |
| Level of Integration | p. 334 |
| Summary | p. 337 |
| References | p. 338 |
| Charge Coupled Devices | |
| Introduction | p. 341 |
| Basic Concepts | p. 342 |
| CCD Charge Storage Fundamentals | p. 342 |
| CCD Architectures | p. 343 |
| Three-Phase CCD Example | p. 344 |
| Quantum Efficiency | p. 347 |
| QE Model | p. 348 |
| Quantum Yield and Photon Transfer Curve | p. 348 |
| Backside Illumination and Thinning | p. 350 |
| Details of Flashgate Theory | p. 352 |
| Thinning Technology and Backside Performance | p. 357 |
| Alternative Approaches for High QE | p. 358 |
| Charge Collection Efficiency | p. 360 |
| Charge Transfer Efficiency | p. 366 |
| Read Noise | p. 369 |
| Summary | p. 373 |
| Acknowledgments | p. 374 |
| References | p. 374 |
| Sensors for the Automotive Industry | p. 377 |
| Introduction | p. 384 |
| Sensing Technology in Vehicle Systems | p. 384 |
| Manifold Absolute Pressure | p. 386 |
| Tire Pressure Sensor | p. 390 |
| Position, Rotation, and Speed Sensing | p. 391 |
| Flow | p. 399 |
| Accelerometers | p. 401 |
| Future Automotive Sensing | p. 407 |
| High-Temperature Operation | p. 407 |
| Liquid Level | p. 407 |
| Chemical Sensing | p. 408 |
| Oil Quality | p. 410 |
| Capability to Compute Rather than Sense | p. 410 |
| Vehicle Diagnostics | p. 412 |
| RF Sensor Applications | p. 413 |
| Future Sensor Requirements | p. 414 |
| Summary | p. 417 |
| References | p. 418 |
| Signal Processing for Micromachined Sensors | |
| Introduction | p. 421 |
| Sensing Methods | p. 421 |
| Piezoelectric Sensing | p. 422 |
| Piezoresistive Sensing | p. 424 |
| Capacitive Sensing | p. 428 |
| Open- and Closed-Loop Systems | p. 433 |
| Different Micromachined Structures--Mechanical Issues | p. 433 |
| Open-Loop Capacitive Sensing | p. 438 |
| Closed-Loop Capacitive Sensing | p. 440 |
| Integration | p. 446 |
| Integrated Pressure Sensor | p. 446 |
| Integrated Accelerometer | p. 446 |
| Dynamic Considerations | p. 448 |
| Shock Considerations | p. 450 |
| Self-Test Features | p. 452 |
| Testing and Trimming | p. 453 |
| Summary | p. 455 |
| References | p. 455 |
| Controlled Oscillators and Their Applicability to Sensors | |
| Introduction | p. 457 |
| Controlled Sinusoidal Oscillators | p. 458 |
| The Oscillator Circuit and Its Control Characteristics | p. 458 |
| Oscillator Amplitude and Frequency Transients | p. 461 |
| Interaction of the Frequency and Amplitude Controls | p. 463 |
| Sinusoidal Oscillators in Applications | p. 466 |
| Controlled Multivibrators | p. 467 |
| Multivibrators versus Sinusoidal Oscillators | p. 467 |
| Multivibrators with Operational Amplifiers | p. 468 |
| Switches in the Basic Multivibrator Circuits | p. 471 |
| One-Amplifier Multivibrator | p. 476 |
| Voltage-to-Frequency Converters | p. 479 |
| Current-to-Frequency Converters | p. 484 |
| Duty-Cycle Modulation | p. 504 |
| Controlled Multivibrators in Applications | p. 507 |
| Summary | p. 507 |
| References | p. 508 |
| About the Authors | p. 511 |
| Index | p. 517 |
| Table of Contents provided by Syndetics. All Rights Reserved. |
