Syntax

Preface and Acknowledgments xiii

Part 1 Preliminaries 1

1 Generative Grammar 3

0. Preliminaries 3

1. Syntax as Science – the Scientific Method 4

2. Syntax as a Cognitive Science 12

3. Models of Syntax 13

4. Competence vs. Performance 13

5. A Clarification on the Word “Language” 15

6. Where Do the Rules Come From? 16

7. Choosing among Theories about Syntax 25

8. The Scientific Method and the Structure of this Textbook 25

9. Conclusion 26

Ideas, Rules, and Constraints Introduced in this Chapter 27

General Problem Sets 29

Challenge Problem Sets 35

2 Parts of Speech 43

0. Words and Why They Matter to Syntax 43

1. Determining Part of Speech 44

2. The Major Parts of Speech: N, V, Adj, and Adv 47

3. Open vs. Closed; Lexical vs. Functional 50

4. Subcategories and Features 52

5. Conclusion 58

Ideas, Rules, and Constraints Introduced in this Chapter 58

General Problem Sets 59

Challenge Problem Sets 63

3 Constituency, Trees, and Rules 67

0. Introduction 67

1. Rules and Trees 70

2. How to Draw a Tree 84

3. Modification and Ambiguity 90

4. Constituency Tests 91

5. Constituency in Other Languages 93

6. Conclusion 98

Ideas, Rules, and Constraints Introduced in this Chapter 98

General Problem Sets 99

Challenge Problem Sets 107

4 Structural Relations 113

0. Introduction 113

1. The Parts of a Tree 114

2. Dominance 116

3. Precedence 119

4. C-command 122

5. Grammatical Relations 126

6. Conclusions 129

Ideas, Rules, and Constraints Introduced in this Chapter 129

General Problem Sets 131

Challenge Problem Sets 138

5 Binding Theory 141

0. Introduction 141

1. The Notions Coindex and Antecedent 143

2. Binding 144

3. Locality Conditions on the Binding of Anaphors 146

4. The Distribution of Pronouns 148

5. The Distribution of R-expressions 148

6. Why Does Binding Theory Matter to Syntacticians 149

6. Conclusion 151

Ideas, Rules, and Constraints Introduced in this Chapter 151

General Problem Sets 152

Challenge Problem Sets 154

Part 2 The Base 159

6 X-bar Theory 161

0. Introduction 161

1. Bar-level Projections 163

2. Generalizing the Rules: The X-bar Schema 168

3. Complements, Adjuncts, and Specifiers 170

4. Some Definitional Housekeeping 179

5. Parameters of Word Order 180

6. Drawing Trees in X-bar Notation 182

7. Conclusion 199

Ideas, Rules, and Constraints Introduced in this Chapter 200

General Problem Sets 201

Challenge Problem Sets 209

7 Extending X-bar Theory to Functional Categories 213

0. Introduction 213

1. Determiner Phrases (DPs) 214

2. A Descriptive Tangent into Clause Types 217

3. Complementizer Phrases (CPs) 221

4. Tense, Perfect, Progressive and Voice Phrases 223

Ideas, Rules, and Constraints Introduced in this Chapter 234

General Problem Sets 236

Challenge Problem Sets 238

8 Constraining X-bar: Theta Theory 243

0. Introduction 243

1. Some Basic Terminology 244

2. Thematic Relations and Theta Roles 245

3. The Lexicon 250

4. Expletives and the Extended Projection Principle 252

5. Conclusion 253

Ideas, Rules, and Constraints Introduced in this Chapter 254

General Problem Sets 255

Challenge Problem Sets 259

9 Theta Grids and Functional Categories 265

0. Introduction 265

1. Complementizers 266

2. Determiners 269

3. Using Theta Grids for English Auxiliaries 273

4. Main verbs vs. Auxiliaries 284

5. Conclusion 287

Ideas, Rules, and Constraints Introduced in this Chapter 287

General Problem Sets 288

Challenge Problem Sets 292

Part 3 Movement 295

10 Head-to-Head Movement 297

0. Introduction 297

1. Verb Movement (V → T) 300

2. T Movement (T → C) 314

3. Do-support 317

Appendix: Determining if a Language has V → T Movement 318

Ideas, Rules, and Constraints Introduced in this Chapter 318

General Problem Sets 319

Challenge Problem Sets 324

11 DP Movement 331

0. Introduction 331

1. A Puzzle for the Theory of Theta Roles 332

2. Passives 337

3. Case 341

4. Raising: Reprise 345

5. Passives: Reprise 347

6. Inherently Passive Verbs: Unaccusatives 348

7. DP Movement in SVO vs. VSO Languages 351

8. Conclusion 353

Ideas, Rules, and Constraints Introduced in this Chapter 353

General Problem Sets 354

Challenge Problem Sets 360

12 Wh-movement and Locality Constraints 365

0. Introduction 365

1. Movement in Wh-questions 366

2. Relative Clauses 375

3. Islands 379

4. The Minimal Link Condition 382

5. Echo Questions (Wh-in-situ) in English 386

6. Conclusion 387

Ideas, Rules, and Constraints Introduced in this Chapter 388

General Problem Sets 389

Challenge Problem Sets 392

13 A Unified Theory of Movement 395

0. Introduction 395

1. Move 397

2. Explaining Cross-linguistic Differences 400

3. Scope, Covert Movement, and the MLC 404

4. Conclusion 406

Ideas, Rules, and Constraints Introduced in this Chapter 407

General Problem Sets 407

Challenge Problem Sets 408

Part 4 Advanced Topics 411

14 Ditransitives 413

0. Introduction 413

1. The Problem of Ditransitive Verbs 414

2. The Active Voice Head 415

3. Object Shift 417

4. Ditransitives: Reprise 422

Ideas, Rules, and Constraints Introduced in this Chapter 426

General Problem Sets 426

Challenge Problem Sets 428

15 Raising, Control, and Empty Categories 429

0. Introduction 429

1. Raising vs. Control 430

2. Two Kinds of Raising, Two Kinds of Control 438

3. Control Theory 443

4. Another Kind of Null Subject: “Little” pro 446

5. Conclusion 447

Ideas, Rules, and Constraints Introduced in this Chapter 447

General Problem Sets 448

Challenge Problem Sets 450

16 Ellipsis 453

0. Ellipsis 453

1. LF-copying or PF-deletion 455

2. Antecedent-Contained Deletion and Pseudogapping 461

3. Conclusion 464

Ideas, Rules, and Constraints Introduced in this Chapter 464

General Problem Sets 466

Challenge Problem Sets 468

17 Advanced Topics in Binding Theory 471

0. Introduction 471

1. Levels of Representation 472

2. The Definition of Binding Domain 473

Ideas, Rules, and Constraints Introduced in this Chapter 479

General Problem Sets 479

Challenge Problem Sets 481

18 Polysynthesis, Incorporation, and Non-configurationality 483

0. Introduction 483

1. Polysynthesis 484

2. Incorporation 486

3. Scrambling and Non-configurationality 487

4. Conclusion 495

Ideas, Rules, and Constraints Introduced in this Chapter 495

General Problem Sets 496

Challenge Problem Sets 497

19 Merge 499

0. Introduction 499

1. External Merge 500

2. Internal Merge 505

3. Conclusion 506

Ideas, Rules, and Constraints Introduced in this Chapter 507

General Problem Sets 507

Challenge Problem Sets 508

Conclusions and Directions for Further Study 509

References 511

Index 521