1. General Aspects of Aircraft Configuration Development.- 1.1. Introduction.- 1.2. Aircraft design and development.- 1.3. Configuration development.- 1.3.1. The design concept.- 1.3.2. Initial configuration design and configuration variations.- 1.3.3. Baseline configuration development.- 1.3.4. The preliminary design department.- 1.4. The initial specification.- 1.4.1. The need for a new type of aircraft.- 1.4.2. Transport capacity.- 1.4.3. Design cruising speed and range.- 1.4.4. Low-speed characteristics and field performance.- 1.4.5. Other requirements.- 1.5. A continuous thread running through the design process.- 1.5.1. The iterative character of design.- 1.5.2. Searching for the optimum.- 1.5.3. A suggested scheme for preliminary design.- 1.6. Impact of civil airworthiness requirements, and operating and flight rules.- 1.6.1. General.- 1.6.2. Federal Aviation Regulations.- 1.6.3. British Civil Airworthiness Requirements.- 1.6.4. Airworthiness standards and design.- 1.7. Conclusion.- 2. The General Arrangement.- 2.1. Introduction.- 2.2. High, low or mid wing?.- 2.2.1. High wing.- 2.2.2. Mid wing.- 2.2.3. Low wing.- 2.2.4. Effects of wing location on the general arrangement.- 2.3. Location of the engines.- 2.3.1. Propeller aircraft.- 2.3.2. Jet-propelled transport aircraft.- 2.3.3. Single-engine subsonic jet aircraft.- 2.4. Arrangement of the tailplane.- 2.4.1. Classification of tail surface configurations.- 2.4.2. The location of tail surfaces.- 2.5. Arrangement of the undercarriage.- 2.5.1. Tailwheel undercarriage.- 2.5.2. Nosewheel undercarriage.- 2.5.3. Tandem undercarriage.- 2.6. Some unconventional aircraft configurations.- 2.6.1. The flying wing.- 2.6.2. Tailless aircraft.- 2.6.3. Tail-first (or canard) layout.- 3. Fuselage Design.- 3.1. Introduction.- 3.1.1. Function and design requirements.- 3.1.2. Drag and optimization of the external shape.- 3.1.3. A design procedure for fuselages with cylindrical mid-section.- 3.2. The fuselage of airliners and general aviation aircraft.- 3.2.1. Importance of comfort and payload density.- 3.2.2. Cabin design.- 3.2.3. Passenger seats.- 3.2.4. Passenger emergency exits, doors and windows.- 3.2.5. Cargo holds.- 3.2.6. Services.- 3.3. The fuselage of cargo aircraft.- 3.3.1. The case for the civil freighter.- 3.3.2. Payload density and volume of the freight hold.- 3.3.3. Loading systems.- 3.3.4. Accessibility of the freight hold.- 3.4. Flight deck design.- 3.4.1. Location of the pilot's seat and the flight controls.- 3.4.2. Visibility from the cockpit.- 3.4.3. Flight deck dimensions and layout.- 3.4.4. Emergency exits for crew members.- 3.5. Some remarks concerning the external shape.- 3.5.1. Fuselages with a cylindrical mid-section.- 3.5.2. Fuselages for relatively small useful loads.- 4. An Appreciation of Subsonic Engine Technology.- 4.1. Introductory comparison of engine types.- 4.2. Current reciprocating engines.- 4.2.1. Some characteristics of the four stroke engine.- 4.2.2. Engine design and its influence on flight performance.- 4.2.3. Engine classification by cylinder arrangement.- 4.2.4. Two-stroke and Rotary Combustion engines.- 4.3. Basic properties of aircraft gas turbines for subsonic speeds.- 4.3.1. The gas producer.- 4.3.2. The propulsive device.- 4.3.3. The pure jet engine.- 4.3.4. The turbofan engine.- 4.3.5. The turboprop engine.- 4.3.6. Overall efficiency, specific fuel consumption and specific thrust (power).- 4.3.7. Analysis of the engine cycle.- 4.4. Assessment of turbojet engines.- 4.4.1. Overall Pressure Ratio.- 4.4.2. Turbine Entry Temperature.- 4.4.3. Bypass ratio.- 4.4.4. Engine noise.- 4.4.5. Summary and prognosis for the turbofan engine.- 4.4.6. Engine performance in non-standard atmosphere.- 4.5. Assessment of turboprop engines.- 4.5.1. Performance.- 4.5.2. Weight and drag.- 4.5.3. Turboprop engine configurations.- 5. Design for Performance.- 5.1. Introduction.- 5.2. Initial weight prediction.- 5.2.1. Stages in the estimation of airplane weight.- 5.2.2. Examples of weight "guesstimates".- 5.3. Initial estimation of airplane drag.- 5.3.1. Drag breakdown.- 5.3.2. Low-speed drag estimation method.- 5.3.3. Compressibility drag.- 5.3.4. Retracing a drag polar from performance figures.- 5.3.5. Drag in takeoff and landing.- 5.4. Evaluation of performance requirements.- 5.4.1. High-speed performance.- 5.4.2. Range performance.- 5.4.3. Climb performance.- 5.4.4. Stalling and minimum flight speeds.- 5.4.5. Takeoff.- 5.4.6. Landing.- 5.5. Aircraft synthesis and optimization.- 5.5.1. Purpose of parametric studies.- 5.5.2. Basic rules.- 5.5.3. Sizing the wing of a long-range passenger transport.- 5.5.4. Wing loading and thrust (power) loading diagrams.- 5.5.5. Optimization for low operating costs.- 5.5.6. Community noise considerations.- 6. Choice of the Engine and Propeller and Installation of the Powerplant.- 6.1. Introduction.- 6.2. Choice of the number of engines and the engine type.- 6.2.1. Engine installation factors.- 6.2.2. Engine failure.- 6.2.3. Engine performance and weight variations.- 6.2.4. Choice of the engine type.- 6.3. Characteristics, choice and installation of propellers.- 6.3.1. General aspects.- 6.3.2. Propeller coefficients and diagrams.- 6.3.3. Blade angle control.- 6.3.4. Propeller geometry.- 6.4. Installation of propeller engines.- 6.4.1. Location of the propellers.- 6.4.2. Tractor engines in the nose of the fuselage.- 6.4.3. Wing-mounted tractor engines.- 6.5. Installation of turbojet engines.- 6.5.1. General requirements.- 6.5.2. Fuselage-mounted podded engines.- 6.5.3. Wing-mounted podded engines.- 6.6. Miscellaneous aspects of powerplant installation.- 6.6.1. Thrust reversal.- 6.6.2. Auxiliary Power Units (APU).- 7. An Introduction to Wing Design.- 7.1. Introduction and general design requirements.- 7.2. Wing area.- 7.2.1. Wing loading for optimum cruising conditions.- 7.2.2. Wing loading limits and structural aspects.- 7.3. Some considerations on low-speed stalling.- 7.3.1. Stall handling requirements and stall warning.- 7.3.2. Design for adequate stall characteristics.- 7.3.3. Stalling properties of airfoil sections.- 7.3.4. Spanwise progression of the stall.- 7.4. Wing design for low-subsonic aircraft.- 7.4.1. PIanform.- 7.4.2. Aspect ratio.- 7.4.3. Thickness ratio.- 7.4.4. Wing taper.- 7.4.5. Airfoil selection.- 7.4.6. Stalling characteristics and wing twist.- 7.5. Wing design for high-subsonic aircraft.- 7.5.1. Wing sections at high-subsonic speeds.- 7.5.2. Wing design for high speeds.- 7.5.3. Low-speed problems of high-speed wings.- 7.5.4. Planform selection.- 7.6. High lift and flight control devices.- 7.6.1. General considerations.- 7.6.2. Trailing-edge flaps.- 7.6.3. Leading-edge high lift devices.- 7.6.4. Flight control devices.- 7.7. Dihedral, anhedral and wing setting.- 7.7.1. The angle of dihedral (anhedral).- 7.7.2. Wing/body incidence.- 7.8. The wing structure.- 7.8.1. Types of wing structure.- 7.8.2. Structural arrangement in plan.- 8. Airplane Weight and Balance.- 8.1. Introduction; the importance of low weight.- 8.2. Weight subdivision and limitations.- 8.2.1. Weight subdivision.- 8.2.2. Weight limitations and capacities.- 8.2.3. Operational weights and the payload-range diagram.- 8.2.4. The choice of weight limits.- 8.3. Methodology of empty weight prediction.- 8.4. Weight prediction data and methods.- 8.4.1. Airframe structure.- 8.4.2. The propulsion group.- 8.4.3. Airframe services and equipment.- 8.4.4. Useful Load and the All-Up Weight.- 8.5. Center of gravity.- 8.5.1. The load and balance diagram.- 8.5.2. Loading flexibility and restrictions.- 8.5.3. Effects of the general arrangement and layout.- 8.5.4. Design procedure to obtain a balanced aircraft.- 9. Preliminary Tailplane Design.- 9.1. Introduction to tailplane design, control systems and stabilization.- 9.2. Static longitudinal stability and elevator control forces.- 9.2.1. Stick-fixed static stability and neutral point.- 9.2.2. Stick-free static stability and neutral point; the stick force gradient.- 9.2.3. Stick-fixed and stick-free maneuver points and maneuver control forces.- 9.2.4. Reduction of control forces.- 9.2.5. Effects of compressibility and powerplant operation.- 9.3. Some aspects of dynamic behavior.- 9.3.1. Characteristics of the SP oscillation.- 9.3.2. Criteria for acceptable SP characteristics.- 9.3.3. A simple criterion for the tailplane size.- 9.3.4. The phugoid.- 9.4. Longitudinal control at low speeds.- 9.4.1. Control capacity required to stall the aircraft.- 9.4.2. Control capacity required for takeoff rotation and landing flareout.- 9.4.3. Out-of-trim conditions.- 9.5. Preliminary design of the horizontal tailplane.- 9.5.1. Tailplane shape and configuration.- 9.5.2. Design procedures.- 9.6. Design of the vertical tailplane.- 9.6.1. Control after engine failure: multi-engine aircraft.- 9.6.2. Lateral stability.- 9.6.3. Crosswind landings.- 9.6.4. The spin.- 9.6.5. Preliminary design of the vertical tailplane.- 10. The Undercarriage Layout.- 10.1. Introduction.- 10.2. Tailoring the undercarriage to the bearing capacity of airfields.- 10.2.1. Runway classification.- 10.2.2. The Equivalent Single Wheel Load (ESWL).- 10.2.3. Multiple wheel undercarriage configurations.- 10.3. Disposition of the wheels.- 10.3.1. Angles of pitch and roll during takeoff and landing.- 10.3.2. Stability at touchdown and during taxying: tricycle undercarriages.- 10.3.3. Gear length, wheelbase and track: tricycle undercarriages.- 10.3.4. Disposition of a tailwheel undercarriage.- 10.4. Type, size and inflation pressure of the tires.- 10.4.1. Main wheel tires.- 10.4.2. Nosewheel tires.- 10.4.3. Inflation pressure.- 10.5. Gear geometry and retraction.- 10.5.1. Energy absorption on touchdown.- 10.5.2. Dimensions of the gear.- 10.5.3. Gear retraction.- 11. Analysis of Aerodynamic and Operational Characteristics.- 11.1. Introduction.- 11.2. Terminology in relation to the determination of drag.- 11.2.1. Pressure drag and skin friction drag.- 11.2.2. Wake drag, vortex-induced drag, and wave drag.- 11.2.3. Form drag, profile drag, and induced drag.- 11.2.4. Zero-lift drag and lift-dependent drag.- 11.2.5. Breakdown for drag analysis.- 11.2.6. Bodies with internal flow.- 11. 3. Determination of aerodynamic characteristics.- 11.3.1. Reynolds number effects.- 11.3.2. Mach number effects.- 11.3.3. Low-speed polars.- 11. 4. The flight envelope.- 11. 5. Flight profile analysis and payload-range diagram.- 11.5.1. Operational climb.- 11.5.2. Cruise performance.- 11.5.3. Descent.- 11.5.4. Payload-range diagram and block time.- 11.6. Climb performance.- 11.6.1. Maximum rate of climb, time to climb and ceilings.- 11.6.2. Takeoff and landing climb.- 11.7. Airfield performance.- 11.7.1. Takeoff field length.- 11.7.2. Landing field length.- 11.8. Some aspects of operating economy.- 11.8.1. Economic criteria.- 11.8.2. Estimation of DOC.- 12. Evaluation and Presentation of a Preliminary Design.- 12.1. Presentation of the design.- 12.2. External geometry and structural arrangement.- 12.3. Layout drawings.- 12.4. Conclusion.- References.- Appendix A. Definitions Relating to the Geometry and Aerodynamic Characteristics of Airfoils.- A-1. General.- A-2. Wing sections.- A-2.1. Geometric definitions.- A-2.2. Aerodynamic definitions.- A-2.3. Nomenclature for some NACA sections.- A-3. Wings.- A-3.1. Wing planform.- A-3.2. (Wing) twist and incidence.- A-3.3. Aerodynamic definitions.- References.- Appendix B. The Computation of Circumferences, Areas and Volumes of Curves, Sections and Bodies.- B-1. Fuselage.- B-1. 1. General method.- B-1. 2. Quick method for bodies of revolution.- B-2. Wings and tailplanes.- B-3. Fuel tank volume.- B-4. Engine nacelles and air ducts.- References.- Appendix C. Prediction of Wing Structural Weight.- C-1. Introduction.- C-2. Basic wing structure weight.- C-3. High lift devices, spoilers and speedbrakes.- C-4. Wing group weight.- Appendix D. The Weight Penalty Method for Fuselage Structural Weight Prediction.- D-1. Survey of the methodology.- D-2. Gross shell weight.- D-2.1. Gross skin weight.- D-2.2. Gross stringer and longeron weight.- D-2.3. Gross standard frame weight.- D-3. Gross shell modifications.- D-3.1. Removed material.- D-3.2. Doors, hatches, windows and enclosures.- D-4. Flooring.- D-4.1. Passenger cabin and freight hold floors.- D-4.2. Various other floors.- D-5. Pressure bulkheads and frames.- D-5.1. Pressure cabin bulkheads.- D-5.2. Wheelbays for retractable undercarriages.- D-6. Support structure.- D-6.1. Wing/fuselage connection.- D-6.2. Engine support structure.- D-6.3. Other support structures.- D-7. Additional weight items.- References.- Appendix E. Prediction Methods for Lift and Pitching Moment of Aircraft in the En Route Configuration.- E-1. Applicability of the methods.- E-2. Contributions to the lift.- E-3. Lifting properties of airfoil sections.- E-3.1. The zero-lift angle.- E-3.2. Lift-curve slope.- E-3.3. Maximum lift.- E-4. Wing lift and lift distribution.- E-4.1. Lift-curve slope.- E-4.2. Spanwise lift distribution.- E-4.3. Zero-lift angle.- E-4.4. Maximum lift.- E-5. Pitching moment of the wing.- E-5.1. Aerodynamic center.- E-6. Wing/fuselage interference effects on lift.- E-7. Wing/fuselage pitching moment.- E-7.1. Aerodynamic center.- E-8. Nacelle and propeller contributions.- E-9. Lift of the complete aircraft.- E-9.1. Tailplane lift.- E-9.2. Total trimmed airplane lift.- E-9.3. Wing/body incidence.- E-9.4. Trimmed lift curve.- E-10. Airplane pitching moment and neutral point (stick fixed).- E-10.1. The stick-fixed neutral point.- E-10.2. Horizontal stabilizer incidence.- E-10.3. Pitching moment curve.- References.- Appendix F. Prediction of the Airplane Polar at Subcritical Speeds in the en Route Configuration.- F-1. Drag components.- F-2. Primary components of vortex-induced drag.- F-2.1. Untwisted plane wings.- F-2.2. Drag due to twist.- F-2.3. Wing tip correction on vortex-induced drag.- F-2.4. Vortex drag induced by fuselage lift.- F-2.5. Nacelle contribution.- F-2.6. Horizontal tailplane contribution.- F-3. Profile drag of smooth, isolated major components.- F-3.1. The flat plate analogy.- F-3.2. Wing sections.- F-3.3. Wings.- F-3.4. Fuselages and tail booms.- F-3.5. Engine nacelles.- F-3.6. Tailplane profile drag.- F-4. Subcritical interference effects and corrections.- F-4.1. Wetted area corrections.- F-4.2. Wing/fuselage interference.- F-4.3. Nacelle/airframe interference.- F-4.4. Tailplane/airframe interference.- F-5. Protuberances, surface imperfections and other extra's.- F-5.1. Fixed undercarriages.- F-5.2. Canopies and windshields.- F-5.3. Wheel-well fairings and blisters.- F-5.4. External fuel tanks.- F-5.5. Streamlined struts.- F-5.6. Powerplant installation drag.- F-5.7. Excrescences, surface imperfections and other extra's.- References.- Appendix G. Prediction of Lift and Drag in the Low-Speed Configuration.- G-l. Introduction.- G-2. Effect of trailing-edge flap deflection on airfoil section lift.- G-2.1. General aspects.- G-2.2. Lift increment at zero angle of attack.- G-2.3. Maximum lift coefficient.- G-2.4. Lift-curve slope.- G-3. Lift of aircraft with deflected trailing-edge flaps.- G-3.1. Wing lift.- G-3.2. Various contributions.- G-3.3. Contribution of the horizontal tailplane.- G-4. Prediction of the low-speed drag polar.- G-4.1. Profile drag.- G-4.2. Vortex-induced drag.- G-4.3. Trim drag.- G-5. Leading-edge high-lift devices.- G-5.1. Sections with plain leading-edge flaps.- G-5.2. Sections with slats and Krueger flaps.- G-5.3. Wing lift with leading-edge devices.- G-5.4. Drag due to leading-edge devices.- G-6. Drag due to extension of a retractable undercarriage.- G-7. Ground effects.- G-7.1. Ground effect on lift.- G-7.2. Ground effect on drag.- G-8. Drag due to engine failure.- G-8.1. Engine windmilling drag.- G-8.2. Propeller drag.- G-8.3. Drag due to the asymmetric flight condition.- References.- Appendix H. Procedures for Computing Turbo-Engine Performance for Aircraft Project Design Work.- H-l. Scope of the method.- H-2. The gas generator.- H-3. Specific performance of straight jet engines.- H-4. Specific performance of turbofan engines.- H-5. Thrust lapse rates, intake and exhaust areas of turbojet and turbofan engines.- H-6. Specific performance of turboprop engines.- H-7. Cycle efficiencies and pressure losses.- References.- Appendix J. Principal Data of the Us and Icao Standard Atmospheres.- Appendix K. The Definition and Calculation of the Takeoff Field Length Required for Civil Transport Aircraft.- K-1. Reference distance definitions.- K-2. Reference speeds.- K-3. Procedure for determining the takeoff field length.- K-4. Methods and data for the analysis of the takeoff.- K-4.3. The rotation phase.- K-4.4. The airborne phase.- K-4.5. The stopping distance.- References.