The Earth's Atmosphere : Its Physics and Dynamics

Its Physics and Dynamics

By: Kshudiram Saha

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Hardcover | 1 July 2008

At a Glance

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392 Pages

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The author has sought to incorporate in the book some of the fundamental concepts and principles of the physics and dynamics of the atmosphere, a knowledge and understanding of which should help an average student of science to comprehend some of the great complexities of the earth-atmosphere system, in which a thr- way interaction between the atmosphere, the land and the ocean tends to maintain an overall mass and energy balance in the system through physical and dynamical processes. The book, divided into two parts and consisting of 19 chapters, introduces only those aspects of the subject that, according to the author, are deemed essential to meet the objective in view. The emphasis is more on clarity and understanding of physical and dynamical principles than on details of complex theories and ma- ematics. Attempt is made to treat each subject from ?rst principles and trace its development to present state, as far as possible. However, a knowledge of basic c- culus and differential equations is sine qua non especially for some of the chapters which appear later in the book.

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"The objective of this book is to describe the earth's atmosphere and the earth-atmosphere system from a physical point of view. ... the book is intended for undergraduate students pursuing courses in earth and atmospheric sciences. ... The book will also prove to be useful to students and scientists who are working in other fields, because it provides excellent examples of the application of the fundamental laws of physics to an environment with which the reader is already very familiar." (Fernande Grandjean and Gary J. Long, Belgian Physical Society Magazine, Issue (1), March, 2009)

"The Earth's Atmosphere is a course resource for atmospheric science ... . With the issue of global warming occupying political and public interest, this volume supplies the necessary foundation for students to understand the controlling factors and physics behind atmospheric processes. ... Saha has done an excellent job developing a resource that will be useful not only to students in meterology, but also in geophysics, planetary science, and environmental science. ... Summing Up: Highly recommended. Upper-division undergraduates and graduate students." (S. A. Russell Gonzalez, Choice, Vol. 46 (8), April, 2009)

"The author tries to explain in the book some of the fundamental concepts and principles of the physics and dynamics of the atmosphere ... . The book is primarily aimed at meeting the needs of students of undergraduate level pursuing courses in earth and atmospheric sciences, but could also be used as a reference book by graduate students as well as scientists working in other fields of science, desirous of learning more about the earth-atmosphere system." (Claudia-Veronika Meister, Zentralblatt MATH, Vol. 1156, 2009)

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Non-Fiction Earth Sciences, Geography, Environment, Planning Earth Sciences Meteorology & Climatology Science Physics Applied Physics Geophysics Atmospheric Physics Engineering & Technology Environmental Science Hydrology & The Hydrosphere

Oceanography & Seas

Physics of the Earth's Atmosphere
The Sun and the Earth - The Solar System and the Earth's Gravitation	p. 3
Introduction	p. 3
Earth's Gravitational Force - Gravity	p. 4
Geopotential Surfaces	p. 6
Motion in the Earth's Gravitational Field - The Law of Central Forces	p. 6
The Earth's Atmosphere - Its Origin, Composition and Properties	p. 9
Introduction: Origin of the Earth's Atmosphere	p. 9
Composition of the Atmosphere	p. 10
Properties and Variables of the Atmosphere	p. 12
Pressure	p. 12
Temperature	p. 15
Density	p. 21
Other Variables of the Atmosphere	p. 22
Observing the Atmosphere	p. 22
Gas Laws - Equations of State	p. 23
The Equation of State - General	p. 23
The Equation of State of an Ideal Gas	p. 24
The Equation of State of a Mixture of Gases	p. 26
The Equation of State of a Real Gas	p. 26
Heat and Thermodynamics of the Atmosphere	p. 27
Introduction. The Nature of Heat and Kinetic Theory	p. 27
The First Law of Thermodynamics	p. 27
Specific Heats of Gases	p. 28
Adiabatic Changes in the Atmosphere	p. 30
Adiabatic Relationship Between Pressure, Temperature and Volume	p. 30
Potential Temperature	p. 30
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate of Temperature with Height	p. 31
Static Stability of Dry Air - Buoyancy Oscillations	p. 31
Adiabatic Propagation of Sound Waves	p. 33
The Concept of Entropy	p. 33
The Second Law of Thermodynamics	p. 36
Carnot Engine	p. 36
Statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics	p. 38
Thermodynamic Equilibrium of Systems: Thermodynamic Potentials	p. 40
Free Energy or Helmholtz Potential	p. 40
Free Enthalpy, or Gibbs' Potential, or Gibbs Free Energy	p. 41
The Third Law of Thermodynamics	p. 41
The Atmosphere as a Heat Engine	p. 42
Water Vapour in the Atmosphere: Thermodynamics of Moist Air	p. 43
Introduction	p. 43
Humidity of the Air - Definitions	p. 44
Density of Moist Air - Virtual Temperature	p. 45
Measurement of Humidity - Hygrometers/Psychrometers	p. 46
Ascent of Moist Air in the Atmosphere - Pseudo-Adiabatic Process	p. 48
Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate of Temperature	p. 50
Equivalent Potential Temperature	p. 50
Variation of Saturation Vapour Pressure with Temperature	p. 51
The Clausius-Clapeyron Equation	p. 51
Melting Point of Ice - Variation with Pressure	p. 53
Co-existence of the Three Phases of Water - the Triple Point	p. 53
Stability of Moist Air	p. 55
Thermodynamic Diagrams	p. 56
Physics of Cloud and Precipitation	p. 59
Introduction - Historical Perspective	p. 59
Cloud-Making in the Laboratory - Condensation Nuclei	p. 60
Atmospheric Nuclei - Cloud Formation in the Atmosphere	p. 62
Drop-Size Distribution in Clouds	p. 64
Rate of Fall of Cloud and Rain Drops	p. 65
Supercooled Clouds and Ice-Particles - Sublimation	p. 66
Clouds in the Sky: Types and Classification	p. 68
From Cloud to Rain	p. 68
Hydrodynamical Attraction	p. 69
Electrical Attraction	p. 72
Collision Due to Turbulence	p. 72
Differences in Size of Cloud Particles	p. 73
Differences of Temperature Between Cloud Elements	p. 73
The Ice-Crystal Effect	p. 74
Meteorological Evidence - Rainfall from Cold and Warm Clouds	p. 75
Rainfall from Warm Clouds	p. 76
Climatological Rainfall Distribution over the Globe	p. 76
Physics of Radiation - Fundamental Laws	p. 79
Introduction - the Nature of Thermal Radiation	p. 79
Radiation and Absorption - Heat Exchanges	p. 79
Conduction	p. 79
Convection	p. 79
Radiation	p. 80
Properties of Radiation	p. 81
Laws of Radiation - Emission and Absorption	p. 82
Kirchhoff's Law	p. 82
Laws of Black Body and Gray Radiation	p. 83
Stefan-Boltzmann Law	p. 84
Wien's Displacement Law	p. 84
Planck's Law of Black Body Radiation	p. 84
Derivation of Wien's Law and Stefan-Boltzmann Law from Planck's Law	p. 85
Spectral Distribution of Radiant Energy	p. 86
Some Practical Uses of Electromagnetic Radiation	p. 88
The Sun and its Radiation	p. 89
Introduction	p. 89
Physical Characteristics of the Sun	p. 90
Structure of the Sun - its Interior	p. 90
The Core - Nuclear Reactions	p. 91
The Radiative Layer	p. 92
The Convective Layer	p. 93
The Photosphere	p. 94
Sunspots	p. 95
The Solar Atmosphere	p. 95
The Reversing Layer	p. 96
The Chromosphere	p. 96
The Corona	p. 96
The Solar Wind	p. 97
The Search for Neutrinos	p. 98
The Incoming Solar Radiation - Interaction with the Earth's Atmosphere and Surface	p. 99
Introduction - the Solar Spectrum	p. 99
Interactions with the Upper Atmosphere (Above 80 km)	p. 100
Interaction with the Solar Wind: Polar Auroras and Magnetic Storms	p. 100
Interaction with the Solar Ultraviolet Radiation	p. 102
The Mesosphere (50-80 km Layer)	p. 102
Interaction with Ozone: the Ozonosphere (20-50 km)	p. 102
Formation of Ozone	p. 103
Destruction of Ozone: the Ozone Hole	p. 103
Warming of the Stratosphere	p. 104
Latitudinal and Seasonal Variation of Ozone	p. 104
Ozone and Weather	p. 105
Scattering, Reflection and Absorption of Solar Radiation in the Atmosphere	p. 107
Scattering and Reflection	p. 107
Atmospheric Absorption	p. 107
Incoming Solar Radiation (Insolation) at the Earth's Surface	p. 108
The Solar Constant	p. 108
The Transparency of the Atmosphere - Effects of Clouds and Aerosols	p. 109
Distribution of Solar Radiation with Latitude - The Seasonal Cycle	p. 109
Seasonal and Latitudinal Variations of Surface Temperature	p. 110
Diurnal Variation of Radiation with Clear and Cloudy Skies	p. 111
Reflection of Solar Radiation at the Earth's Surface - The Albedo	p. 113
Heat Balance of the Earth's Surface - Upward and Downward Transfer of Heat	p. 115
Introduction: General Considerations	p. 115
Heat Balance on a Planet Without an Atmosphere	p. 116
Heat Balance on a Planet with an Atmosphere: The Greenhouse Effect	p. 117
The Greenhouse Effect	p. 118
Vertical Transfer of Radiative Heating - Diurnal Temperature Wave	p. 119
Sensible Heat Flux	p. 120
Vertical Transfer of Sensible Heat into the Atmosphere	p. 120
Evaporation and Evaporative Heat Flux from a Surface	p. 123
Bowen's Ratio	p. 124
Evaporative Cooling	p. 124
Exchange of Heat Between the Earth's Surface and the Underground Soil	p. 125
Amplitude and Range	p. 126
Time Lag	p. 126
Velocity	p. 127
Wavelength	p. 127
Diurnal Wave	p. 127
Annual Wave	p. 128
Radiative Heat Flux into the Ocean	p. 129
General Properties of Ocean Water	p. 129
Optical Properties of Ocean Water - Reflection and Refraction	p. 131
Absorption and Downward Penetration of Solar Radiation in the Ocean	p. 132
Vertical Distribution of Temperature in the Ocean	p. 133
The Thermohaline Circulation - Buoyancy Flux	p. 134
Photosynthesis in the Ocean: Chemical and Biological Processes	p. 135
Heat Balance of the Earth-Atmosphere System - Heat Sources and Sinks	p. 137
Introduction - definition of heat sources and sinks	p. 137
Physical Processes Involved in Heat Balance	p. 138
Simpson's Computation of Heat Budget	p. 139
Heat Balance from Satellite Radiation Data	p. 141
Heat Sources and Sinks from the Energy Balance Equation	p. 145
Computation of Atmospheric Heating from Mass Continuity Equation	p. 149
Dynamics of the Earth's Atmosphere - The General Circulation
Winds on a Rotating Earth - The Dynamical Equations and the Conservation Laws	p. 155
Introduction	p. 155
Forces Acting on a Parcel of Air	p. 156
Pressure Gradient Force	p. 156
Gravity Force	p. 157
Force of Friction or Viscosity	p. 157
Acceleration of Absolute Motion	p. 158
Acceleration of Relative Motion	p. 159
Coriolis Force	p. 161
The Equations of Motion in a Rectangular Co-ordinate System	p. 162
A System of Generalized Vertical Co-ordinates	p. 162
The Equations of Motion in Spherical Co-ordinate System	p. 164
The Equation of Continuity	p. 167
The Thermodynamic Energy Equation	p. 168
Scale Analysis and Simplification of the Equations of Motion	p. 169
The Geostrophic Approximation and the Geostrophic Wind	p. 170
Scale Analysis of the Vertical Momentum Equation	p. 171
Simplified Equations of Motion - Quasi-Balanced Winds	p. 173
Introduction	p. 173
The Basic Equations in Isobaric Co-ordinates	p. 173
Horizontal Momentum Equations	p. 173
The Continuity Equation	p. 174
The Thermodynamic Energy Equation	p. 174
Balanced Flow in Natural Co-ordinates	p. 175
Velocity and Acceleration in Natural Co-ordinate System	p. 175
The Gradient Wind	p. 176
The Geostrophic Wind	p. 177
Relationship Between the Geostrophic Wind and the Gradient Wind	p. 178
Inertial Motion	p. 178
Cyclostrophic Motion	p. 179
Trajectories and Streamlines	p. 180
Streamline-Isotach Analysis	p. 182
Variation of Wind with Height - The Thermal Wind	p. 183
Circulation, Vorticity and Divergence	p. 187
Definitions and Concepts - Circulation and Vorticity	p. 187
The Circulation Theorem	p. 188
Absolute and Relative Vorticity	p. 191
Vorticity and Divergence in Natural Co-ordinates	p. 191
Potential Vorticity	p. 193
The Vorticity Equation in Frictionless Adiabatic Flow	p. 196
The Vorticity Equation from the Equations of Motion	p. 196
Vorticity Equation in Cartesian Co-ordinates (x, y, z)	p. 196
The Vorticity Equation in Isobaric Co-ordinates	p. 198
Circulation and Vorticity in the Real Atmosphere (In Three Dimensions)	p. 199
Vertical Motion in the Atmosphere	p. 200
The kinematic Method	p. 200
The Adiabatic Method	p. 201
The Vorticity Method	p. 201
Differential Properties of a Wind Field	p. 202
Translation, (u[subscript 0], v[subscript 0])	p. 203
Divergence, Expansion (D)	p. 203
Deformation	p. 204
Rotation	p. 205
Types of Wind Fields - Graphical Representation	p. 205
The Boundary Layers of the Atmosphere and the Ocean	p. 207
Introduction	p. 207
The Equations of Turbulent Motion in the Atmosphere	p. 208
The Mixing-Length Hypothesis - Exchange Co-efficients	p. 211
The Vertical Structure of the Frictionally-Controlled Boundary Layer	p. 212
The Surface Layer	p. 212
The Ekman or Transition Layer	p. 214
The Secondary Circulation - The Spin-Down Effect	p. 217
The Nocturnal Jet	p. 220
Turbulent Diffusion and Dispersion in the Atmosphere	p. 221
The Boundary Layer of the Ocean - Ekman Drift and Mass Transport	p. 222
Ekman Pumping and Coastal Upwelling in the Ocean	p. 224
Waves and Oscillations in the Atmosphere and the Ocean	p. 227
Introduction	p. 227
The Simple Pendulum	p. 228
Representation of Waves by Fourier Series	p. 229
Dispersion of Waves and Group Velocity	p. 230
The Perturbation Technique	p. 231
Simple Wave Types	p. 232
Internal Gravity (or Buoyancy) Waves in the Atmosphere	p. 239
Internal Gravity (Buoyancy) Waves - General Considerations	p. 240
Mountain Lee Waves	p. 244
Dynamics of Shallow Water Gravity Waves	p. 244
The Adjustment Problem - Shallow Water Equations in a Rotating Frame	p. 245
The Steady-State Solution: Geostrophic Adjustment	p. 246
Energy Transformations	p. 247
Transient Oscillations - Poicare Waves	p. 250
Importance of the Rossby Radius of Deformation	p. 251
Equatorial Waves and Oscillations	p. 253
Introduction	p. 253
The Governing Equations in Log-Pressure Co-ordinate System	p. 254
The Horizontal Momentum Equations	p. 254
The Hydrostatic Equation	p. 255
The Continuity Equation	p. 255
The Thermodynamic Energy Equation	p. 255
The Kelvin Wave	p. 255
The Mixed Rossby-Gravity Wave	p. 257
Observational Evidence	p. 259
The Quasi-Biennial Oscillation (QBO)	p. 260
The Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO)	p. 262
El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)	p. 266
Introduction	p. 266
El Nino/La Nina	p. 266
Southern Oscillation (SO)	p. 268
The Walker Circulation - ENSO	p. 270
Evidence of Walker Circulation in Global Data	p. 270
Mechanism of ENSO?	p. 271
Dynamical Models and Numerical Weather Prediction (N.W.P.)	p. 275
Introduction - Historical Background	p. 275
The Filtering of Sound and Gravity Waves	p. 276
Quasi-Geostrophic Models	p. 278
Nondivergent Models	p. 279
Hierarchy of Simplified Models	p. 282
One-Parameter Barotrpic Model	p. 282
A Two-Parameter Baroclinic Model	p. 282
Primitive Equation Models	p. 284
PE Model in Sigma Co-ordinates	p. 285
A Two-Level Primitive Equation Model	p. 288
Computational Procedure	p. 289
Present Status of NWP	p. 290
Dynamical Instability of Atmospheric Flows - Energetics and Energy Conversions	p. 293
Introduction	p. 293
Inertial Instability	p. 294
Baroclinic Instability	p. 295
The Model	p. 295
Special Cases of Baroclinic Instability	p. 297
The Stability Criterion - Neutral Curve	p. 298
Vertical Motion in Baroclinically Unstable Waves	p. 300
Energetics and Energy Conversions in Baroclinic Instability	p. 302
Definitions	p. 302
Energy Equations for the Two-Level Quasi-Geostrophic Model	p. 304
Barotropic Instability	p. 306
Conditional Instability of the Second Kind (CISK)	p. 308
The General Circulation of the Atmosphere	p. 311
Introduction - Historical Background	p. 311
Zonally-Averaged Mean Temperature and Wind Fields Over the Globe	p. 313
Longitudinally-Averaged Mean Temperature and Wind Fields in Vertical Sections	p. 313
Idealized Pressure and Wind Fields at Surface Over the Globe in the Three-Cell Model	p. 316
Observed Distributions of Mean Winds and Circulations Over the Globe	p. 317
Maintenance of the Kinetic Energy and Angular Momentum	p. 319
The Kinetic Energy Balance of the Atmosphere	p. 319
The Angular Momentum Balance - Maintenance of the Zonal Circulation	p. 320
Eddy-Transports	p. 324
Eddy Flux of Sensible Heat	p. 324
Eddy-Flux of Angular Momentum	p. 324
Eddy-Flux of Water Vapour	p. 326
Vertical Eddy-Transports	p. 327
Laboratory Simulation of the General Circulation	p. 327
Numerical Experiment on the General Circulation	p. 331
Appendices	p. 333
Vector Analysis-Some Important Vector Relations	p. 333
The Concept of a Vector	p. 333
Addition and Subtraction of Vectors: Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar	p. 334
Multiplication of Vectors	p. 335
Differentiation of Vectors: Application to the Theory of Space Curves	p. 337
Space Derivative of a Scalar Quantity. The Concept of a Gradient Vector	p. 338
Del Operator, [down triangle, open]	p. 339
Use of Del Operator in Different Co-ordinate Systems	p. 340
Cartesian Co-ordinates (x, y, z)	p. 340
Spherical Co-ordinates ([lambda], [phi], r)	p. 340
Motion Under Earth's Gravitational Force	p. 341
Adiabatic Propagation of Sound Waves	p. 342
Some Selected Thermodynamic Diagrams	p. 343
Derivation of the Equation for Saturation Vapour Pressure Curve Taking into Account the Temperature Dependence of the Specific Heats (After Joos, 1967)	p. 344
Theoretical Derivation of Kelvin's Vapour Pressure Relation for e[subscript r]/e[subscript s]	p. 346
Values of Thermal Conductivity Constants for a Few Materials, Drawn from Sources, Including 'International Critical Tables' (1927), 'Smithsonian Physical Tables' (1934), 'Landholt-Bornstein' (1923-1936), 'McAdams' (1942) and others	p. 348
Physical Units and Dimensions	p. 349
Some Useful Physical Constants and Parameters	p. 350
References	p. 353
Author Index	p. 359
Subject Index	p. 363
Table of Contents provided by Ingram. All Rights Reserved.

The Earth's Atmosphere : Its Physics and Dynamics

Its Physics and Dynamics

At a Glance

Hardcover

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