The Technology of Vitamins in Food

1 Biological functions of vitamins.- 1.1 Introduction.- 1.2 Retinol (vitamin A) and the provitamin carotenoids.- 1.3 Vitamin D.- 1.4 Vitamin E (tocopherol).- 1.5 Vitamin K.- 1.6 Thiamin.- 1.7 Riboflavin.- 1.8 Pyridoxin.- 1.9 Niacin.- 1.10 Vitamin B12.- 1.11 Folates.- 1.12 Pantothenic acid.- 1.13 Biotin.- 1.14 Taurine and choline.- 1.15 Carnitine.- 1.16 Ascorbic acid.- 1.17 Other organic trace constituents of food.- 1.18 Vitamins and 'free radical' damage.- Further reading.- 2 Natural occurrence of vitamins in food.- 2.1 Fat soluble vitamins and carotenoids.- 2.1.1 Vitamin A and the carotenoids.- 2.1.2 Determination of vitamin A in foods.- 2.1.3 Natural sources of retinoids and carotenoids.- 2.1.4 Vitamin D.- 2.1.5 Vitamin E.- 2.1.6 Vitamin K.- 2.2 Water soluble vitamins.- 2.2.1 Thiamin.- 2.2.2 Riboflavin.- 2.2.3 Niacin.- 2.2.4 Vitamin B6.- 2.2.5 Vitamin B12.- 2.2.6 Pantothenic acid.- 2.2.7 Biotin.- 2.2.8 Folic acid.- 2.2.9 Vitamin C.- References.- 3 Nutritional aspects of vitamins.- 3.1 Vitamin deficiency diseases.- 3.1.1 Introduction.- 3.1.2 Fat soluble vitamins.- 3.1.3 Water soluble vitamins: the vitamin B-complex.- 3.1.4 Water soluble vitamins: vitamin C.- 3.2 Recommended daily allowances.- 3.2.1 Introduction.- 3.2.2 International concepts of the function of RDAs/RDIs.- 3.3 Safety.- 3.3.1 Introduction.- 3.3.2 Issues.- 3.3.3 Attitudes.- 3.3.4 Need.- 3.3.5 Adventitious acquisition.- 3.3.6 Safety and RDAs (DRVs).- 3.3.7 Need and consumption.- 3.3.8 Possible guidelines for safety.- References.- 4 Industrial production.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.1.1 History.- 4.1.2 Current situation.- 4.1.3 Future production.- 4.2 Vitamin production.- 4.2.1 Vitamin A.- 4.2.2 Provitamin A: ss-carotene.- 4.2.3 Vitamin B1: thiamine.- 4.2.4 Vitamin B2: riboflavin.- 4.2.5 Niacin.- 4.2.6 Pantothenic acid.- 4.2.7 Vitamin B6: pyridoxine.- 4.2.8 Folic acid.- 4.2.9 Vitamin B12.- 4.2.10 Vitamin C.- 4.2.11 Vitamin D.- 4.2.12 Vitamin E: ?-tocopherols.- 4.2.13 Vitamin F group.- 4.2.14 Biotin (vitamin H).- 4.2.15 Vitamin K.- References.- 5 Stability of vitamins in food.- 5.1 Introduction.- 5.2 Fat soluble vitamins.- 5.2.1 Vitamin A.- 5.2.2 Vitamin E.- 5.2.3 Vitamin D.- 5.2.4 Vitamin K.- 5.2.5 ?-carotene (provitamin A).- 5.3 Water soluble vitamins.- 5.3.1 Thiamin (vitamin B1).- 5.3.2 Riboflavin (vitamin B2).- 5.3.3 Niacin.- 5.3.4 Pantothenic acid.- 5.3.5 Folic acid.- 5.3.6 Pyridoxine (vitamin B6).- 5.3.7 Vitamin B12.- 5.3.8 Biotin.- 5.3.9 Vitamin C.- 5.4 Vitamin-vitamin interactions.- 5.4.1 Ascorbic acid-folic acid.- 5.4.2 Ascorbic acid-vitamin B12.- 5.4.3 Thiamin-folic acid.- 5.4.4 Thiamin-vitamin B12.- 5.4.5 Riboflavin-thiamin.- 5.4.6 Riboflavin-folic acid.- 5.4.7 Riboflavin-ascorbic acid.- 5.4.8 Other interactions.- 5.5 Processing losses.- 5.5.1 Vegetables and fruits.- 5.5.2 Meat.- 5.5.3 Milk.- 5.6 Irradiation.- 5.7 Food product shelf life.- 5.8 Protection of vitamins.- References.- 6 Vitamin fortification of foods (specific applications).- 6.1 Addition of vitamins to foods.- 6.1.1 Introduction.- 6.2 Beverages.- 6.2.1 Vitiminisation of instant beverages.- 6.2.2 Vitiminisation of concentrates, nectars and juice drinks.- 6.2.3 Vitamin stability.- 6.2.4 Vitamin incorporation.- 6.3 Cereal products.- 6.3.1 Breakfast cereals.- 6.3.2 Bread.- 6.3.3 Pasta.- 6.4 Dairy products.- 6.4.1 Milk.- 6.4.2 Yoghurt.- 6.4.3 Ice cream.- 6.4.4 Margarine.- 6.5 Confectionery.- 6.5.1 Hard boiled candies.- 6.5.2 Chocolate.- 6.5.3 Fondant.- 6.5.4 Marshmallows.- 6.5.5 Pectin jellies.- 6.5.6 Starchjellies.- 6.5.7 Chewing gum.- References.- 7 Vitamins as food additives.- 7.1 Ascorbic acid (vitamin C).- 7.1.1 Properties.- 7.1.2 Fruit, vegetables and fruit juices.- 7.1.3 Soft drinks.- 7.1.4 Beer.- 7.1.5 Wine.- 7.1.6 Flour and bread.- 7.1.7 Pasta.- 7.1.8 Meat processing.- 7.2 Carotenoids (provitamins A).- 7.2.1 Properties.- 7.2.2 Fat based foods.- 7.2.3 Water based foods.- 7.3 Riboflavin (vitamin B2).- 7.4 Niacin.- 7.5 dl-?-tocopherol (vitamin E).- 7.5.1 Oils and fats.- References.- 8 Vitamin analysis in foods.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.1.1 Laboratory environment.- 8.2 Oil soluble vitamins.- 8.2.1 Vitamin D.- 8.2.2 Vitamin A.- 8.2.3 Provitamin A carotenoids.- 8.2.4 Vitamin E.- 8.3 The B-group vitamins.- 8.3.1 Microbiological assays.- 8.3.2 Thiamin-vitamin B1.- 8.3.3 Riboflavin-vitamin B2.- 8.3.4 Niacin.- 8.3.5 Vitamin B6.- 8.3.6 Folates.- 8.3.7 Vitamin B12.- 8.3.8 Pantothenic acid.- 8.3.9 Biotin.- 8.4 Vitamin C.- 8.4.1 Introduction.- 8.4.2 Extraction of vitamin C.- 8.4.3 Determination of vitamin C.- 8.4.4 Summary.- References.- 9 Food fortification.- 9.1 General policies for nutrient additions.- 9.2 Legislation concerning addition of nutrients to foods.- 9.2.1 Food for special dietary uses.- 9.2.2 Foods having lost nutrients during manufacture.- 9.2.3 Food resembling a common food.- 9.2.4 Staple foods.- 9.3 Claims for nutrients and labelling of fortified foods.- 9.4 Restrictive regulations and policies on health claims.- 9.5 The stability of vitamins.- 9.6 Additions of iron sources to foods and drinks.- 9.7 Communicating nutrition.- 9.8 Conclusion.- References.- Appendix 1: Chemical and physical characteristics of vitamins.- Appendix 2: Recommended nutrient reference values for food labelling purposes.