| Acknowledgements | p. xii |
| Table of Cases | p. xiv |
| Table of Statutes | p. xvi |
| Introduction | p. 1 |
| Key developments in victimology, policy and practice | p. 1 |
| Overview of the book | p. 6 |
| Victimology and victimisation | p. 11 |
| Theories of victimology | p. 13 |
| Introduction | p. 13 |
| Positivist victimology | p. 14 |
| Conservative criminology and the victims of predatory crime | p. 17 |
| Radical victimology | p. 20 |
| Marxist victimology: Corporate crime and its victims | p. 20 |
| Left realist criminology: a synthesis of theories of crime and victimisation | p. 21 |
| Feminist concerns with the victims of crime | p. 23 |
| Critical victimology | p. 26 |
| Criminology or sociology of harm? | p. 28 |
| Conclusion | p. 30 |
| Questions for further discussion | p. 31 |
| Victimisation | p. 33 |
| Introduction | p. 33 |
| The extent of victimisation | p. 34 |
| National crime victim surveys | p. 34 |
| Local crime surveys | p. 38 |
| Victims of corporate crime | p. 40 |
| Repeat victimisation | p. 43 |
| The impact of victimisation | p. 44 |
| Fear of crime | p. 46 |
| Secondary victimisation | p. 47 |
| Conclusion | p. 49 |
| Questions for further discussion | p. 50 |
| Women victims - domestic terror and female victimisation | p. 51 |
| Introduction | p. 51 |
| Rape and sexual assault | p. 51 |
| The extent of rape and sexual assault | p. 51 |
| The impact on victims | p. 53 |
| Secondary victimisation | p. 55 |
| The rate of attrition | p. 55 |
| The court process | p. 58 |
| Male rape | p. 59 |
| Domestic violence | p. 62 |
| The nature and extent of domestic violence | p. 62 |
| Domestic violence against men: theoretical paradigm or paradox? | p. 63 |
| The impact on victims | p. 65 |
| Minority ethnic women | p. 67 |
| Secondary victimisation | p. 68 |
| Responses of the police and the CPS | p. 68 |
| The court process | p. 72 |
| Conclusion | p. 72 |
| Questions for further discussion | p. 73 |
| Victims from minority ethnic groups | p. 75 |
| Introduction | p. 75 |
| Ethnicity, victimisation and social distribution | p. 75 |
| Extent of 'ordinary' criminal victimisation | p. 75 |
| Fear of crime | p. 77 |
| Racially motivated crime | p. 78 |
| Definition | p. 78 |
| Distribution of crime and impact on victims | p. 79 |
| Impact on victims | p. 82 |
| Victims in rural areas | p. 83 |
| Religiously motivated crime | p. 84 |
| The perpetrators of hate | p. 85 |
| Secondary victimisation | p. 87 |
| State victimisation: police stops and searches of minority ethnic persons | p. 90 |
| Conclusion | p. 99 |
| Questions for further discussion | p. 100 |
| LGBT and elderly victims | p. 101 |
| Introduction | p. 101 |
| LGBT victims | p. 101 |
| Nature, extent and impact of LGBT victimisation | p. 102 |
| Secondary victimisation | p. 106 |
| Elderly victims | p. 107 |
| History of elder victimisation | p. 107 |
| Nature and extent of elder victimisation: senescent victimisation | p. 108 |
| Victimisation in private | p. 109 |
| Victimisation in private institutions | p. 111 |
| The hidden nature of elder victimisation in private: under-reporting levels | p. 113 |
| Victimisation in public | p. 113 |
| Conclusion | p. 115 |
| Questions for further discussion | p. 116 |
| Legal responses to victimisation | p. 117 |
| The development of a victims' rights discourse | p. 119 |
| Introduction | p. 119 |
| European jurisprudence on victims' rights | p. 120 |
| Council of Europe | p. 120 |
| European Court of Human Rights | p. 122 |
| Independent civil right to a fair trial | p. 122 |
| Incorporation of victims' rights/interests into defendant's right to fair trial | p. 123 |
| Positive obligations | p. 125 |
| English law and policy on victims' rights | p. 128 |
| The position prior to the Victims' Code | p. 129 |
| The Victims' Code | p. 130 |
| The role of the courts | p. 131 |
| Judicial review | p. 131 |
| Human rights jurisprudence concerning victims | p. 133 |
| Towards enforceable rights | p. 139 |
| Conclusion | p. 141 |
| Questions for further discussion | p. 142 |
| Support and assistance | p. 143 |
| Introduction | p. 143 |
| Council of Europe instruments | p. 143 |
| 'Official' agencies | p. 144 |
| Victim Support | p. 144 |
| Services | p. 145 |
| Advocacy | p. 146 |
| Community and inter-agency work | p. 148 |
| Witness Support | p. 149 |
| Witness Service | p. 149 |
| Witness Care Units | p. 150 |
| 'Unofficial' agencies | p. 150 |
| Organisations responding to gender-based violence | p. 151 |
| Organisations responding to racism and Islamophobia | p. 152 |
| Organisations responding to homophobic and transphobic victimisation | p. 153 |
| Conclusion | p. 154 |
| Questions for further discussion | p. 154 |
| Information, respect and recognition, and protection | p. 155 |
| Introduction | p. 155 |
| Council of Europe instruments | p. 155 |
| English law and policy | p. 157 |
| Pre-trial process | p. 157 |
| Police | p. 158 |
| Crown Prosecution Service | p. 158 |
| Court process | p. 159 |
| Witness Care Units | p. 160 |
| Court Service | p. 160 |
| Measures to reduce secondary victimisation in court | p. 161 |
| Release of offenders | p. 169 |
| Effectiveness of measures | p. 170 |
| Conclusion | p. 171 |
| Questions for further discussion | p. 172 |
| Victim participation | p. 173 |
| Introduction | p. 173 |
| Forms of participation | p. 174 |
| Council of Europe instruments | p. 176 |
| Victim participation in the UK | p. 177 |
| Decisions to prosecute | p. 177 |
| Decisions to accept pleas | p. 178 |
| Victim Personal Statements | p. 179 |
| VPS scheme | p. 179 |
| Opposing views on VPS | p. 180 |
| Family Impact Statements and lawyers for families of homicide victims | p. 182 |
| Victim participation in the US | p. 183 |
| Decisions to prosecute | p. 183 |
| Decisions to accept pleas | p. 183 |
| Victim participation in sentencing | p. 184 |
| Victims' lawyers | p. 185 |
| European models of victim participation | p. 186 |
| Party and non-party victims | p. 187 |
| Victim participation in the pre-trial stage | p. 187 |
| Non-party victims' lawyers | p. 189 |
| Victim parties | p. 189 |
| Auxiliary prosecution | p. 189 |
| Adhesion | p. 193 |
| Victim participation and defendants' rights | p. 195 |
| Conclusion | p. 198 |
| Questions for further discussion | p. 198 |
| Victim compensation | p. 199 |
| Introduction | p. 199 |
| European provisions | p. 199 |
| Criminal injuries compensation | p. 201 |
| Origins and development | p. 201 |
| Criminal Injuries Compensation Act 1995 | p. 202 |
| The Criminal Injuries Compensation Scheme 1996 | p. 203 |
| The Criminal Injuries Compensation Scheme 2001 | p. 208 |
| Proposals for reform | p. 209 |
| Compensation by the offender | p. 210 |
| Compensation orders | p. 210 |
| Reparation orders | p. 212 |
| Surcharges | p. 213 |
| Recovery orders | p. 213 |
| Conclusion | p. 214 |
| Questions for further discussion | p. 214 |
| Victims and restorative justice | p. 215 |
| Introduction | p. 215 |
| Restorative justice paradigm | p. 215 |
| International and European provisions | p. 218 |
| Restorative justice in England and Wales | p. 220 |
| Government policy | p. 220 |
| Restorative justice initiatives | p. 221 |
| Victim-offender mediation (VOM) | p. 221 |
| RJ conferencing | p. 222 |
| Family Group Conferences (FGCs) | p. 225 |
| Reparation orders | p. 226 |
| Referral orders | p. 227 |
| Effectiveness of restorative justice for victims | p. 228 |
| Conclusion | p. 231 |
| Questions for further discussion | p. 232 |
| Rights of victims from socially disadvantaged groups | p. 233 |
| Introduction | p. 233 |
| Gender-based victimisation | p. 233 |
| Human rights obligations | p. 233 |
| Rape | p. 235 |
| Police and forensic services | p. 235 |
| Crown Prosecution Service | p. 236 |
| Court process | p. 237 |
| Domestic violence | p. 238 |
| Domestic violence as 'real' crime | p. 238 |
| Support and assistance to victims | p. 240 |
| Minority ethnic victims | p. 241 |
| Racially and religiously motivated victimisation | p. 242 |
| Human rights obligations | p. 242 |
| Racially and religiously motivated offences | p. 244 |
| Criminal justice responses | p. 246 |
| Police and multi-agency partnerships | p. 246 |
| Crown Prosecution Service | p. 248 |
| Court process | p. 249 |
| Homophobic and transphobic victimisation | p. 250 |
| Human rights instruments | p. 250 |
| Offences | p. 251 |
| Criminal justice responses | p. 252 |
| Police and multi-agency responses | p. 252 |
| Crown Prosecution Service | p. 253 |
| Elder abuse | p. 254 |
| Human rights dimensions | p. 255 |
| English law and policy | p. 256 |
| American law | p. 256 |
| Enforcement of state duties | p. 258 |
| Anti-discrimination legislation | p. 259 |
| Human Rights Act 1998 | p. 261 |
| Conclusion | p. 263 |
| Questions for further discussion | p. 264 |
| Conclusion - A victims' rights model for the criminal process | p. 265 |
| Bibliography | p. 270 |
| Index | p. 293 |
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