Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xv
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Procedures and Rules 5
1.3 Standards 6
1.3.1 History and Purpose of Standards 6
1.3.2 A Few Examples of Standards throughout the Ages 6
1.3.3 Classification 8
1.3.4 Limited Consensus Standards 9
1.3.5 Voluntary Consensus Standards (VCS) 9
1.3.6 Governmental Standards 10
1.4 Applicability of Standards 11
1.4.1 Permissible Materials of Construction, Performance Criteria, and Material Data 13
1.4.2 Safe Design Rules 13
1.4.3 Construction Details 14
1.4.4 Available Methodologies for Inspection and Testing 14
1.4.5 Safe Operating Parameters 14
1.4.6 Conformity Assessment 14
1.5 Summary 15
2 Role of Governments in Standards 17
2.1 Overview 17
2.2 History 19
2.3 Aspects of Governmental Involvement with Standards 19
2.4 General Policies 20
2.5 National versus State, Provincial, or Local Standards Involvement 20
2.6 The US Government and Standards 21
2.7 US Government OMB Circular A119 21
2.8 National Technology Transfer and Advancement Act 23
2.9 National Science and Technology Council 24
2.10 Other US Government Actions 24
2.11 How the Government Uses Standards 24
2.12 US Government as a Participant in VCS Activities 25
2.13 State and Local Standards Use 26
2.14 Other Countries 26
2.15 Summary 27
2.16 Case Studies 27
3 Voluntary Consensus Standards and Codes 29
3.1 Purpose of Standards 30
3.1.1 Standards for Safety and Reliability 30
3.1.2 Standards to Reduce Cost 32
3.1.3 Standards for Increased Flexibility 33
3.1.4 Standards for Promotion of Business 34
3.1.5 Standards to Help Society to Function 35
3.1.6 Consistency 36
3.2 Voluntary Consensus Standards 36
3.3 American National Standard Institute (ANSI) 36
3.4 Codes 38
3.4.1 National Codes 38
3.4.2 International Codes 38
3.5 Some ANSI Accredited Organizations 38
3.5.1 American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) 39
3.5.2 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) 42
3.5.3 American Petroleum Institute (API) 43
3.5.4 UL (Formerly Underwriters Laboratory) 43
3.5.5 National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors (NBBI) 43
3.5.6 American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) 44
3.5.7 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 44
4 Limited Consensus Standards 45
4.1 Types of Standards 45
4.2 Proprietary versus Nonproprietary Standards 47
4.2.1 Proprietary Standards 47
4.2.2 Nonproprietary Standards 48
4.3 Governmental and Jurisdictional Limited Consensus Standards 48
4.3.1 NASA 48
4.3.2 Army Corp of Engineers 49
4.3.3 National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) 49
4.3.4 National Science Foundation (NSF) 49
4.3.5 US Department of Agriculture (USDA) - Forest Service 49
4.3.6 United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) 50
4.3.7 Municipalities 50
4.4 Case Studies 50
5 Jurisdictional Standards 51
5.1 Regulations and Jurisdictional Requirements 51
5.2 Jurisdictional Standards Implementation 56
5.3 Incorporation by Reference 56
5.3.1 Access to Reference Standards 57
5.3.2 Updating of Reference Standards 57
5.4 Sample Jurisdictional Standard: The OSHA Regulations 58
5.4.1 OSHA General Duty Clause 60
5.5 Summary 61
6 Standards Development Process 63
6.1 Introduction 64
6.2 Voluntary Consensus Standards (VCS) 64
6.3 Government Nonjurisdictional Standards: DOD, NASA, etc. 65
6.4 Governmental Jurisdictional Standards: DOT, FAA, FCC, OSHA, etc. 66
6.5 Corporate Standards 66
6.5.1 Corporate Public Standards 66
6.5.2 Corporate Proprietary Standards 67
6.6 Limited Consensus Standards 67
6.7 Standards Maintenance 68
6.8 Summary 68
6.9 Case Study 68
7 Types of Standards 69
7.1 Introduction 69
7.2 Performance versus Prescriptive 69
7.2.1 Performance Standards 69
7.2.2 Prescriptive Standards 70
7.2.3 Component Standards 71
7.2.4 Hybrid Standards 71
7.3 Geographical, Political, or Economic Extent 72
7.4 Mandatory or Voluntary 72
7.5 Consensus versus Nonconsensus 73
7.6 Purpose 73
7.7 Subject 73
7.8 Surprise Consequences of a Successful Standard 74
7.9 Summary 76
7.10 Case Study 76
8 Conformity Assessment 77
8.1 Introduction 77
8.2 Users of Conformity Assessment 78
8.2.1 Producers and Manufacturers 79
8.2.2 Users and their Designated Agents 79
8.2.3 Inspection/Insurance Agencies and Inspection Jurisdictions 79
8.2.4 Governmental Agencies 80
8.3 Applicability of Conformity Assessment 80
8.3.1 Employees 80
8.3.2 Processes 81
8.3.3 Products 81
8.3.4 Services 81
8.3.5 Systems 82
8.4 Verification and Validation Process 82
8.5 Conformity Assessment Organizations 84
8.6 Summary 85
8.7 Case Studies 85
9 Standards Interpretation and Relief 87
9.1 General Discussion 87
9.2 Standards Adoption 88
9.3 Effect of Noncompliance with Standards 89
9.3.1 New Products 90
9.3.2 Post-Manufacturing Noncompliance 92
9.4 Standards Interpretation 95
9.4.1 Informal Processes 95
9.4.2 Formal Interpretations 95
9.5 Tailoring 97
9.5.1 Nonmandatory Standards Tailoring 98
9.5.2 Legislative Tailoring 98
9.5.3 Governmental Agency Supplemental Standards 98
9.6 Waivers and Variances 99
9.6.1 Waivers of Corporate Standards 99
9.6.2 Code Cases 100
9.6.3 Variances from Jurisdictional Standards 101
9.7 Summary 103
9.8 Case Study 103
10 Characteristics of a Good Standard 105
10.1 Introduction 105
10.2 Clarity and Understanding 105
10.3 Scope 106
10.4 Terminology 107
10.5 Structure and Organization 107
10.6 Consistency 109
10.7 References to Other Standards 109
10.8 Attention to Details 109
10.9 Supplementing a Standard 110
10.10 Timeliness 110
10.11 Sample Standard Structure 110
10.12 Summary 112
10.13 Case Studies 112
11 Getting Involved in Standards Development 113
11.1 Introduction 113
11.2 Reasons to Get Involved 113
11.2.1 Influence the Process and the Product 113
11.2.2 Opportunity to Learn 114
11.2.3 Credibility 114
11.2.4 Personal Satisfaction 115
11.2.5 Networking and Career Benefits 115
11.3 Opportunities for Involvement in Standards 116
11.3.1 Company Standards 116
11.3.2 Interest Group Standards 116
11.3.3 Voluntary Consensus Standards (VCS) 116
11.3.4 Jurisdictional Standards 117
11.4 Selecting a Committee 117
11.4.1 Finding a Committee 117
11.4.2 Making the Choice 118
11.5 What Does It Require? 118
11.6 Summary 119
Acronyms 121
Appendix A Deciding Not to Use a Standard 125
A.1 Introduction 125
A.2 Reasons Not to Use a Standard 126
A.2.1 Lack of a Standard 126
A.2.2 Overly Constraining 126
A.2.3 Unique Product or Application 126
A.2.4 Basic Services 127
A.2.5 Patented Products 127
A.3 Consequences of Not Using a Standard 127
A.4 Mitigations for Not Using a Standard 128
A.5 Summary 129
Appendix B Some SDOs developing Voluntary Consensus Standards 131
Appendix C Some Industrial Organizations That Publish Limited Consensus Standards 135
Appendix D Some US Government Jurisdictional Agencies 137
Bibliography 139
Biography 141
Index 143
